Research on Spanking

Corporal punishment, maternal warmth, and child adjustment: A longitudinal study in eight countries.

Lansford, J. E., Sharma, C., Malone, P. S., Woodlief, D., Dodge, K. A., Oburu, P., Pastorelli, C., Skinner, A. T., Sorbring, E., Tapanya, S., Uribe Tirado, L. M., Zelli, A., Al-Hassan, S. M., Alampay, L. P., Bacchini, D., Bombi, A. S., Bornstein, M. H., Change, L., Deater-Deckard, K., & Di Giunta, L. (2014). Corporal punishment, maternal warmth, and child adjustment: A longitudinal study in eight countries. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 43(4), 670-685. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2014.893518

Two key tasks facing parents across cultures are managing children's behaviors (and misbehaviors) and conveying love and affection. Previous research has found that corporal punishment generally is related to worse child adjustment, whereas parental warmth is related to better child adjustment. This study examined whether the association between corporal punishment and child adjustment problems (anxiety and aggression) is moderated by maternal warmth in a diverse set of countries that vary in a number of sociodemographic and psychological ways. Interviews were conducted with 7- to 10-year-old children (N = 1,196; 51% girls) and their mothers in 8 countries: China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States. Follow-up interviews were conducted 1 and 2 years later. Corporal punishment was related to increases, and maternal warmth was related to decreases, in children's anxiety and aggression over time; however, these associations varied somewhat across groups. Maternal warmth moderated the effect of corporal punishment in some countries, with increases in anxiety over time for children whose mothers were high in both warmth and corporal punishment. The findings illustrate the overall association between corporal punishment and child anxiety and aggression as well as patterns specific to particular countries. Results suggest that clinicians across countries should advise parents against using corporal punishment, even in the context of parent-child relationships that are otherwise warm, and should assist parents in finding other ways to manage children's behaviors.

Adverse childhood experiences and spanking have similar associations with early behavior problems.

Ma, J., Lee, S. J., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2021). Adverse childhood experiences and spanking have similar associations with early behavior problems. Journal of Pediatrics, 235, 170-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2021.01.072

Objectives: To examine whether adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and physical punishment (ie, spanking) are unique risk factors for behavior problems in early childhood, and whether ACEs moderate the associations of spanking with child behavior problems.

Study design: We conducted prospective, longitudinal analyses on 2380 families in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Mothers reported outcomes of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems at age 5 years; and the main predictors, ACEs and spanking, at age 3 years. ACEs included 9 items: physical abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, mother's exposure to intimate partner violence, parental mental health problem, parental substance use, parental incarceration, and parental death. Multilevel models examined the associations between ACEs, spanking, and behavior problems, and the moderating effect of ACEs in the associations of spanking with behavior problems. Analyses were adjusted for preexisting behavior problems, demographics, and neighborhood conditions.

Results: ACEs (β = 0.028; P < .001) and spanking (β=0.041; P < .001) at 3 years were unique risk factors for increased externalizing behavior problems at 5 years, after controlling for covariates. The magnitude of the associations of ACEs and spanking with externalizing behavior were statistically indistinguishable. ACEs did not moderate the association between spanking and externalizing behavior.

Conclusions: ACEs and spanking have similar associations in predicting child externalizing behavior. Results support calls to consider physical punishment as a form of ACE. Our findings also underscore the importance of assessing exposure to ACEs and physical punishment among young children and providing appropriate intervention to children at risk.

Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses.

Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2016). Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(4), 453–469. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000191

Whether spanking is helpful or harmful to children continues to be the source of considerable debate among both researchers and the public. This article addresses 2 persistent issues, namely whether effect sizes for spanking are distinct from those for physical abuse, and whether effect sizes for spanking are robust to study design differences. Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children. Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes. Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics.

Attachment style and the association of spanking and child externalizing behavior.

Ward, K. P., Lee, S. J., Pace, G. T., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Ma, J. (2020). Attachment style and the association of spanking and child externalizing behavior. Academic Pediatrics, 20(4), 501-507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2019.06.017

Objectives: To examine whether the longitudinal associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior are moderated by attachment style.

Methods: This study used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (n = 2211), a large cohort sample of low-income urban families. Multiple-group autoregressive cross-lagged models examined the associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior when children were ages 1, 3, and 5. Moderation by attachment style was examined using structural invariance testing.

Results: For children with an insecure mother-child attachment style, spanking at age 1 was associated with externalizing behavior at age 3. However, for children with a secure mother-child attachment style, the association between maternal spanking at age 1 and child externalizing behavior at age 3 was absent. Attachment style did not moderate the association between maternal spanking at age 3 and externalizing behavior at age 5, suggesting that spanking at age 3 is associated with deleterious outcomes at age 5, regardless of attachment style.

Conclusions: Results suggest that even in the context of a secure attachment style, spanking is associated with adverse outcomes in early childhood. Findings support the American Academy of Pediatrics 2018 policy statement, which encourages parents to avoid spanking when disciplining children. Results suggest that children, regardless of attachment style, may benefit from policies and services that promote non-violent forms of discipline.

Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review.

Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128(4), 539–579. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539

Although the merits of parents using corporal punishment to discipline children have been argued for decades, a thorough understanding of whether and how corporal punishment affects children has not been reached. Toward this end, the author first presents the results of meta-analyses of the association between parental corporal punishment and 11 child behaviors and experiences. Parental corporal punishment was associated with all child constructs, including higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression and lower levels of moral internalization and mental health. The author then presents a process-context model to explain how parental corporal punishment might cause particular child outcomes and considers alternative explanations. The article concludes by identifying 7 major remaining issues for future research.

Parent discipline practices in an international sample: Associations with child behaviors and moderation by perceived normativeness.

Gershoff, E. T., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Lansford, J. E., Change, L., Zelli, A., Deater-Deckard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (2010). Parent discipline practices in an international sample: Associations with child behaviors and moderation by perceived normativeness. Child Development, 81(2), 487-502. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01409.x

This study examined the associations of 11 discipline techniques with children's aggressive and anxious behaviors in an international sample of mothers and children from 6 countries and determined whether any significant associations were moderated by mothers' and children's perceived normativeness of the techniques. Participants included 292 mothers and their 8- to 12-year-old children living in China, India, Italy, Kenya, Philippines, and Thailand. Parallel multilevel and fixed effects models revealed that mothers' use of corporal punishment, expressing disappointment, and yelling were significantly related to more child aggression symptoms, whereas giving a time-out, using corporal punishment, expressing disappointment, and shaming were significantly related to greater child anxiety symptoms. Some moderation of these associations was found for children's perceptions of normativeness.

Strengthening causal estimates for links between spanking and children’s externalizing behavior problems.

Gershoff, E. T., Sattler, K. M. P., & Ansari, A. (2018). Strengthening causal estimates for links between spanking and children’s externalizing behavior problems. Psychological Science, 29(1), 110-120. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617729816

Establishing causal links when experiments are not feasible is an important challenge for psychology researchers. The question of whether parents' spanking causes children's externalizing behavior problems poses such a challenge because randomized experiments of spanking are unethical, and correlational studies cannot rule out potential selection factors. This study used propensity score matching based on the lifetime prevalence and recent incidence of spanking in a large and nationally representative sample (N = 12,112) as well as lagged dependent variables to get as close to causal estimates outside an experiment as possible. Whether children were spanked at the age of 5 years predicted increases in externalizing behavior problems by ages 6 and 8, even after the groups based on spanking prevalence or incidence were matched on a range of sociodemographic, family, and cultural characteristics and children's initial behavior problems. These statistically rigorous methods yield the conclusion that spanking predicts a deterioration of children's externalizing behavior over time.

Spanking and adult mental health impairment: The case for the designation of spanking as an adverse childhood experience.

Afifi, T. O., Ford, D., Gershoff, E. T., Merrick, M., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Ports, K. A., MacMillan, H. L., Holdren, G. W., Taylor, C. A., Lee, S. J., & Bennet, R. P. (2017). Spanking and adult mental health impairment: The case for the designation of spanking as an adverse childhood experience. Child Abuse & Neglect, 71, 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.01.014

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) such as child abuse are related to poor health outcomes. Spanking has indicated a similar association with health outcomes, but to date has not been considered an ACE. Physical and emotional abuse have been shown in previous research to correlate highly and may be similar in nature to spanking. To determine if spanking should be considered an ACE, this study aimed to examine 1): the grouping of spanking with physical and emotional abuse; and 2) if spanking has similar associations with poor adult health problems and accounts for additional model variance. Adult mental health problems included depressive affect, suicide attempts, moderate to heavy drinking, and street drug use. Data were from the CDC-Kaiser ACE study (N=8316, response rate=65%). Spanking loaded on the same factor as the physical and emotional abuse items. Additionally, spanking was associated with increased odds of suicide attempts (Adjusted Odds Ratios (AOR)=1.37; 95% CI=1.02 to1.86), moderate to heavy drinking (AOR)=1.23; 95% CI=1.07 to 1.41), and the use of street drugs (AOR)=1.32; 95% CI=1.4 to 1.52) in adulthood over and above experiencing physical and emotional abuse. This indicates spanking accounts for additional model variance and improves our understanding of these outcomes. Thus, spanking is empirically similar to physical and emotional abuse and including spanking with abuse adds to our understanding of these mental health problems. Spanking should also be considered an ACE and addressed in efforts to prevent violence.

Longitudinal links between spanking and children’s externalizing behaviors in a national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American families.

Gershoff, E. T., Lansford, J. E., Sexton, H. R., Davis-Keen, P., & Sameroff, A. J. (2012). Longitudinal links between spanking and children’s externalizing behaviors in a national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American families. Child Development, 83(3), 838-843. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01732.x

This study examined whether the longitudinal links between mothers' use of spanking and children's externalizing behaviors are moderated by family race/ethnicity, as would be predicted by cultural normativeness theory, once mean differences in frequency of use are controlled. A nationally representative sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American families (n = 11,044) was used to test a cross-lagged path model from 5 to 8 years old. While race/ethnic differences were observed in the frequency of spanking, no differences were found in the associations of spanking and externalizing over time: Early spanking predicted increases in children's externalizing while early child externalizing elicited more spanking over time across all race/ethnic groups.

Does warmth moderate longtiduinal associations between maternal spanking and child aggression in early childhood?

Lee, S. J., Altschul, I., & Gershoff, E. T. (2013). Does warmth moderate longtiduinal associations between maternal spanking and child aggression in early childhood? Developmental Psychology, 49(11), 2017-2028. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031630

This study examines whether maternal warmth moderates the association between maternal use of spanking and increased child aggression between ages 1 and 5. Participants were 3,279 pairs of mothers and their children from a cohort study of urban families from 20 U.S. cities. Maternal spanking was assessed when the child was 1 year, 3 years, and 5 years of age. Maternal warmth and child aggressive behavior were measured at 3 years and 5 years of age. Models controlled for demographic characteristics (measured at the child's birth), child emotionality (measured at age 1), and maternal psychosocial risk factors (measured when children were 3 years old). Cross-lagged path models examined the within-time and longitudinal associations between spanking and child aggression. Results indicated that maternal spanking at age 1 was associated with higher levels of child aggression at age 3; similarly, maternal spanking at age 3 predicted increases in child aggression by age 5. Maternal warmth when children were 3 years old did not predict changes in child aggression between 3 and 5 years old. Furthermore, maternal warmth did not moderate the association between spanking and increased child aggression over time. Beginning as early as age 1, maternal spanking is predictive of child behavior problems, and maternal warmth does not counteract the negative consequences of the use of spanking.

Physical punishment as a predictor of early cognitive development: Evidence from econometric approaches.

Cuartas, J., McCoy, D. C., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Gershoff, E. (2020). Physical punishment as a predictor of early cognitive development: Evidence from econometric approaches. Developmental Psychology, 56(11), 2013-2026. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001114

This study estimates the effect of physical punishment on the cognitive development of 1,167 low-income Colombian children (Mage = 17.8 months old) using 3 analytic strategies: lagged-dependent variables, a difference-in-differences-like approach (DD), and a novel strategy combining matching with a DD-like approach. Across approaches, physical punishment at ages 9-26 months predicted reductions in children's cognitive development of 0.08-0.21 SD at ages 27-46 months. These results, plus null results of falsification tests, strengthen the argument that physical punishment leads to slower cognitive growth and illustrate the utility of alternative statistical methods to reduce problems of selection bias in developmental research.

Physical punishment and child externalizing behavior: Comparing American Indian, White, and African American children.

Ward, K. P., Lee, S. J., Limb, G. E., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. C. (2019). Physical punishment and child externalizing behavior: Comparing American Indian, White, and African American children. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519861678

This study examined if, compared to White and African American children, maternal spanking of American Indian children was associated with child externalizing behavior problems. Using a community-based sample of 3,632 children (1,183 White, 2,183 African American, 266 American Indian), multiple-group autoregressive cross-lagged models examined the associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior across the first 5 years of life. Rates of spanking for American Indian and White children were similar at all three time points (age 1, age 3, and age 5). When comparing White and American Indian groups, maternal spanking at age 1 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 3 (White: β = .10, p < .001; American Indian: β=.08, p < .01), and maternal spanking at age 3 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 5 (White: β=.09, p < .05; American Indian: β=.08, p < .01). When comparing African American and American Indian groups, maternal spanking at age 1 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 3 (African American: β=.08, p < .01; American Indian: β=.06, p < .001), and maternal spanking at age 3 predicted child externalizing behavior at age 5 (African American: β=.08, p < .001; American Indian: β=.07, p < .001). Structural invariance tests suggested that the associations observed among American Indian children were not distinguishable from those observed among White and African American children. Results of this study can be interpreted in light of the recent American Academy of Pediatrics statement that encourages pediatricians to counsel parents against the use of physical punishment. Similar to White and African American families, American Indian families may benefit from reducing or eliminating the use of physical punishment.

Spanking and young children’s socioemotional development in low- and middle-income countries.

Pace, G. T., Lee, S. J., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2019). Spanking and young children’s socioemotional development in low- and middle-income countries. Child Abuse & Neglect, 88, 84-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.11.003

Spanking is one of the most common forms of child discipline used by parents around the world. Research on children in high-income countries has shown that parental spanking is associated with adverse child outcomes, yet less is known about how spanking is related to child well-being in low- and middle-income countries. This study uses data from 215,885 children in 62 countries from the fourth and fifth rounds of UNICEF's Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) to examine the relationship between spanking and child well-being. In this large international sample which includes data from nearly one-third of the world's countries, 43% of children were spanked, or resided in a household where another child was spanked, in the past month. Results from multilevel models show that reports of spanking of children in the household were associated with lower scores on a 3-item socioemotional development index among 3- and 4-year-old children. Country-level results from the multilevel model showed 59 countries (95%) had a negative relationship between spanking and socioemotional development and 3 countries (5%) had a null relationship. Spanking was not associated with higher socioemotional development for children in any country. While the cross-sectional association between spanking and socioemotional development is small, findings suggest that spanking may be harmful for children on a more global scale than was previously known.

Using Bayesian analysis to examine associations between spanking and child externalizing behavior across race and ethnic groups.

Grogan-Kaylor, A., Ma, J., Lee, S. J., Castillo, B., Ward, K. P., & Klein, S. (2018). Using Bayesian analysis to examine associations between spanking and child externalizing behavior across race and ethnic groups. Child Abuse & Neglect, 86, 257-266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.10.009

While corporal punishment is widely understood to have undesirable associations with children's behavior problems, there remains controversy as to whether such effects are consistent across different racial or ethnic groups. We employed a Bayesian regression analysis, which allows for the estimation of both similarities and differences across groups, to study whether there are differences in the relationship of corporal punishment and children's behavior problems using a diverse, urban sample of U.S. families (n = 2653). There is some moderation of the relationship between corporal punishment and child behavior by race or ethnicity. However, corporal punishment is associated with increases in behavior problems for all children. Thus, our findings add evidence from a new analytical lens that corporal punishment is consistently linked to increased externalizing behavior across African American, White, or Hispanic children, even after earlier externalizing behavior is controlled for. Our findings suggest that corporal punishment has detrimental consequences for all children and that all parents, regardless of their racial or ethnic background, should be advised to use alternatives to corporal punishment.

Relationship of corporal punishment and antisocial behavior by neighborhood.

Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2005). Relationship of corporal punishment and antisocial behavior by neighborhood. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 159(10), 938-942. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.159.10.938

Objectives: To examine the relationship of corporal punishment with children's behavior problems while accounting for neighborhood context and while using stronger statistical methods than previous literature in this area, and to examine whether different levels of corporal punishment have different effects in different neighborhood contexts.

Design: Longitudinal cohort study.

Setting: General community.

Participants: 1943 mother-child pairs from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth.

Main outcome measure: Internalizing and externalizing behavior problem scales of the Behavior Problems Index.

Results and conclusions: Parental use of corporal punishment was associated with a 0.71 increase (P<.05) in children's externalizing behavior problems even when several parenting behaviors, neighborhood quality, and all time-invariant variables were accounted for. The association of corporal punishment and children's externalizing behavior problems was not dependent on neighborhood context. The research found no discernible relationship between corporal punishment and internalizing behavior problems.

Slapping and spanking in childhood and its association with lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders in a general population sample.

MacMillan, H. L., Boyle, M. H., Wong, M. Y., Duku, E. K., Fleming, J. E., & Walsh, C. A. (1999). Slapping and spanking in childhood and its association with lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders in a general population sample. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 161(7), 805-809. Available at https://www.cmaj.ca/content/cmaj/161/7/805.full.pdf

Background: Little information is available in Canada about the prevalence of and outcomes associated with a history of slapping and spanking in childhood. The objectives of this study were to estimate the prevalence of a history of slapping or spanking in a general population sample and to assess the relation between such a history and the lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders.

Methods: In this general population survey, a probability sample of 9953 residents of Ontario aged 15 years and older who participated in the Ontario Health Supplement was used to examine the prevalence of a history of slapping and spanking. A subgroup of this sample (n = 4888), which comprised people aged 15 to 64 years who did not report a history of physical or sexual abuse during childhood, was used to assess the relation between a history of slapping or spanking and the lifetime prevalence of 4 categories of psychiatric disorder. The measures included a self-administered questionnaire with a question about frequency of slapping and spanking during childhood, as well as an interviewer-administered questionnaire to measure psychiatric disorder.

Results: The majority of respondents indicated that they had been slapped or spanked, or both, by an adult during childhood "sometimes" (33.4%) or "rarely" (40.9%); 5.5% reported that this occurred "often." The remainder (20.2%) reported "never" experiencing these behaviours. Among the respondents without a history of physical or sexual abuse during childhood, those who reported being slapped or spanked "often" or "sometimes" had significantly higher lifetime rates of anxiety disorders (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 1.43, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.04-1.96), alcohol abuse or dependence (adjusted OR 2.02, 95% CI 1.27-3.21) and one or more externalizing problems (adjusted OR 2.08, 95% CI 1.36-3.16), compared with those who reported "never" being slapped or spanked. There was also an association between a history of slapping or spanking and major depression, but it was not statistically significant (adjusted OR 1.64, 95% CI 0.96-2.80).

Interpretation: There appears to be a linear association between the frequency of slapping and spanking during childhood and a lifetime prevalence of anxiety disorder, alcohol abuse or dependence and externalizing problems.

The strength of the casual evidence against physical punishment of children and its implications for parents, psychologists, and policymakers.

Gershoff, E. T., Goodman, G. S., Miller-Perrin, C. L., Holden, G. W., Jackson, Y., & Kazdin, A. E. (2018). The strength of the casual evidence against physical punishment of children and its implications for parents, psychologists, and policymakers. American Psychologist, 73(5), 626-638. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000327

The question of whether physical punishment is helpful or harmful to the development of children has been subject to hundreds of research studies over the past several decades. Yet whether causal conclusions can be drawn from this largely nonexperimental research and whether the conclusions generalize across contexts are issues that remain unresolved. In this article, the authors summarize the extent to which the empirical research on physical punishment meets accepted criteria for causal inference. They then review research demonstrating that physical punishment is linked with the same harms to children as is physical abuse and summarize the extant research that finds links between physical punishment and detrimental outcomes for children are consistent across cultural,family, and neighborhood contexts. The strength and consistency of the links between physical punishment and detrimental child outcomes lead the authors to recommend that parents should avoid physical punishment, psychologists should advise and advocate against it, and policymakers should develop means of educating the public about the harms of and alternatives to physical punishment.

Corporal punishment and youth externalizing behavior in Santiago, Chile.

Ma, J., Han, Y., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Delva, J., & Castillo, M. (2012). Corporal punishment and youth externalizing behavior in Santiago, Chile. Child Abuse & Neglect, 36(6), 481-490. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chiabu.2012.03.006

Objectives: Corporal punishment is still widely practiced around the globe, despite the large body of child development research that substantiates its short- and long-term consequences. Within this context, this paper examined the relationship between parental use of corporal punishment and youth externalizing behavior with a Chilean sample to add to the growing empirical evidence concerning the potential relationship between increased corporal punishment and undesirable youth outcomes across cultures.

Methods: Analysis was based on 919 adolescents in Santiago, Chile. Descriptive and multivariate analyses were conducted to examine the extent to which parents’ use of corporal punishment and positive family measures were associated with youth externalizing behavior. Furthermore, the associations between self-reported externalizing behavior and infrequent, as well as frequent, use of corporal punishment were investigated to contribute to understanding how varying levels of parental use of corporal punishment were differently related to youth outcomes.

Results: Both mother’s and father’s use of corporal punishment were associated with greater youth externalizing behavior. Additionally, increases in positive parenting practices, such as parental warmth and family involvement, were met with decreases in youth externalizing behavior when controlling for youth demographics, family socioeconomic status, and parents’ use of corporal punishment. Finally, both infrequent and frequent use of corporal punishment were positively associated with higher youth problem behaviors, though frequent corporal punishment had a stronger relationship with externalizing behavior than did infrequent corporal punishment.

Conclusions: Parental use of corporal punishment, even on an occasional basis, is associated with greater externalizing behavior for youth while a warm and involving family environment may protect youth from serious problem behaviors. Therefore, findings of this study add to the growing evidence concerning the negative consequences of corporal punishment for youth outcomes.

Severity and justness do not moderate the relation between corporal punishment and negative child outcomes: A multicultural and longitudinal study.

Alampay, L. P., Godwin, J., Lansford, J. E., Bombi, A. S., Bornstein, M. H., Change, L., Deater-Deckard, K., Di Giunta, L., Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Oburu, P., Pastorelli, C., Skinner, A. T., Sorbring, E., Tapanya, S., Uribe Tirado, L. M., Zelli, A., Al-Hassan, S., & Bacchini, D. (2017). Severity and justness do not moderate the relation between corporal punishment and negative child outcomes: A multicultural and longitudinal study. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 41(4), 491-502. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177%2F0165025417697852

There is strong evidence of a positive association between corporal punishment and negative child outcomes, but previous studies have suggested that the manner in which parents implement corporal punishment moderates the effects of its use. This study investigated whether severity and justness in the use of corporal punishment moderate the associations between frequency of corporal punishment and child externalizing and internalizing behaviors. This question was examined using a multicultural sample from eight countries and two waves of data collected one year apart. Interviews were conducted with 998 children aged 7-10 years, and their mothers and fathers, from China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Thailand, and the United States. Mothers and fathers responded to questions on the frequency, severity, and justness of their use of corporal punishment; they also reported on the externalizing and internalizing behavior of their child. Children reported on their aggression. Multigroup path models revealed that across cultural groups, and as reported by mothers and fathers, there is a positive relation between the frequency of corporal punishment and externalizing child behaviors. Mother-reported severity and father-reported justness were associated with child-reported aggression. Neither severity nor justness moderated the relation between frequency of corporal punishment and child problem behavior. The null result suggests that more use of corporal punishment is harmful to children regardless of how it is implemented, but requires further substantiation as the study is unable to definitively conclude that there is no true interaction effect.

Corporal punishment by mothers and development of children's cognitive ability: A longitudinal study of two nationally representative age cohorts.

Straus, M. A., & Paschall, M. J. (2009). Corporal punishment by mothers and development of children's cognitive ability: A longitudinal study of two nationally representative age cohorts. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 18(5), 459-483. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926770903035168

This study tested the hypothesis that the use of corporal punishment (CP), such as slapping a child's hand or “spanking,” is associated with restricted development of cognitive ability. Cognitive ability was measured at the start of the study and 4 years later for 806 children age 2–4 and 704 children age 5–9 in the National Longitudinal Study of Youth. The analyses controlled for 10 parenting and demographic variables. Children of mothers in both cohorts who used little or no CP at Time 1 gained cognitive ability faster than children who were not spanked. The more CP experienced, the more they fell behind children who were not spanked.

Relationships between parents' use of corporal punishment and their children's endorsement of spanking and hitting other children.

Simons, D. A., & Wurtele, S. K. (2010). Relationships between parents' use of corporal punishment and their children's endorsement of spanking and hitting other children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(9), 639-646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.01.012

Parental corporal punishment predicts behavior problems in early childhood.

Mulvaney, M. K., & Mebert, C. J. (2007). Parental corporal punishment predicts behavior problems in early childhood. Journal of Family Psychology, 21(3), 389-397. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0893-3200.21.3.389

Using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (Research Triangle Institute, 2002), this study examined the impact of corporal punishment (CP) on children's behavior problems. Longitudinal analyses were specified that controlled for covarying contextual and parenting variables and that partialed child effects. The results indicate that parental CP uniquely contributes to negative behavioral adjustment in children at both 36 months and at 1st grade, with the effects at the earlier age more pronounced in children with difficult temperaments. Parents and mental health professionals who work to modify children's negative behavior should be aware of the unique impact that CP likely plays in triggering and maintaining children's behavior problems. Broad-based family policies that reduce the use of this parenting behavior would potentially increase children's mental health and decrease the incidence of children's behavior problems.

Wait until your father gets home? Mother’s and fathers’ spanking and development of child aggression.

Lee, S. J., Altschul, I., & Gershoff, E. T. (2015). Wait until your father gets home? Mother’s and fathers’ spanking and development of child aggression. Child and Youth Services Review, 52, 158-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.11.006

This study examined whether fathers’ and mothers’ spanking contributed to development of child aggression in the first 5 years of life. We selected parents (N = 1,298) who were married or cohabiting across all waves of data collection. Cross-lagged path models examined fathers’, mothers’, and both parents’ within-time and longitudinal associations between spanking and child aggression when the child was 1, 3, and 5 years of age. Results indicated that mothers spanked more than fathers. When examining fathers only, fathers’ spanking was not associated with subsequent child aggression. When examining both parents concurrently, only mothers’ spanking was predictive of subsequent child aggression. We found no evidence of multiplicative effects when testing interactions examining whether frequent spanking by either fathers or mothers was predictive of increases in children’s aggression. This study suggests that the processes linking spanking to child aggression differ for mothers and fathers.

Predicting externalizing and prosocial behaviors in children from parental use of corporal punishment.

Piché, G., Huỳnh, C., Clément, M., & Durrant, J. E. (2006). Predicting externalizing and prosocial behaviors in children from parental use of corporal punishment. Infant and Child Development, 26(4), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.2006

This study examined whether parental corporal punishment (CP) was associated with children's externalizing and prosocial behaviors 2 years later. The potential moderating effects of child temperament, maternal depression, and parenting skills were explored. Also, exploratory analyses of these associations were conducted according to the children's gender. Data from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (n = 1,686 children) were analyzed using ordinary least-squares regression models. CP at 41 months was associated with boys' and girls' physical aggression and conduct problems at age five. Positive parenting skills moderated boys' conduct problems in the absence of CP. Parenting skills and maternal depressive symptoms moderated girls' prosocial behaviors in the absence of CP. Early experiences of CP are associated with negative developmental outcomes 2 years later. The implementation of parenting programs targeting a reduction in CP is recommended.

Parent discipline in Thailand: Corporal punishment use and associations with myths and psychological outcomes.

Watakakosol, R. Suttiwan, P., Wongcharee, H., Kish, A., & Newcombe, P. A. (2019). Parent discipline in Thailand: Corporal punishment use and associations with myths and psychological outcomes. Child Abuse & Neglect, 88, 298-306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.12.002

A basic human right of all children is protection from physical punishment in all settings. Yet, corporal punishment remains common place within families, at home, at school, and elsewhere. In Thailand, cultural beliefs and values might preserve its use. This research sought to explore the use of corporal punishment in Thai homes. It also aimed to investigate young adult retrospective accounts of parent use of corporal punishment and their associations with psychological attributes and the acceptance of certain myths that might perpetuate its use. Two hundred and fifty young people (Mage = 20.26 years, SD = 1.19) recounted their parent’s disciplining strategies related to when they were 10 years old. They also completed the Personality Assessment Questionnaire (Rohner, 1999), the Corporal Punishment Myth Scale (Kish & Newcombe, 2015) and responded as parents to a number of child misbehavior scenarios. Overall, 80.4% reported some instance of corporal punishment as a 10-year-old with lifetime prevalence at 85.5%. Receiving corporal punishment was related to poorer psychological outcomes as a young adult. Myths about corporal punishment significantly predicted the use of that discipline strategy in the scenarios. The results are discussed in relation to Thai cultural values and beliefs and the need to gather further evidence to support further policy and legislative changes.

Corporal punishment and child adjustment.

Aucoin, K. J., Frick, P. J., & Bodin, S. D. (2006). Corporal punishment and child adjustment. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27(6), 527-541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2006.08.001

The association between corporal punishment and children's emotional and behavioral functioning was studied in a sample of 98 non-referred children with a mean age of 12.35 (SD=1.72) recruited from two school systems in the southeastern United States. Children were divided into those who had experienced no corporal punishment over approximately a two-week period, those who had experienced mild levels of corporal punishment (i.e., 1 or 2 instances), and those who had experienced high levels of corporal punishment (i.e., 3 or more instances). Results indicated that use of corporal punishment was associated with problems in both emotional and behavioral adjustment. However, these associations were strongest for children who experienced high levels of corporal punishment, for children who were impulsive, and for children who did not experience a warm and supportive family climate.

Childhood corporal punishment and future perpetration of physical dating violence.

Temple, J. R., Choi, H. J., Reuter, T., Wolfe, D., Taylor, C. A., Madigan, S., & Scott, L. E. (2018). Childhood corporal punishment and future perpetration of physical dating violence. The Journal of Pediatrics, 194, 233-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.10.028

Objective: To test whether experiencing childhood corporal punishment is linked to later perpetration of dating violence.

Study design: Young adults (n = 758; 61% female; mean age of 20 years), originally recruited for a longitudinal study as 9th- and 10th-grade Texas high school students, were asked about their childhood experiences with corporal punishment and physical abuse, as well as current experiences with dating violence. A path model was used to determine whether childhood corporal punishment was related to recent perpetration of physical dating violence, while controlling for childhood physical abuse, age, sex, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status.

Results: In all, 19% of participants (n = 134) reported physical dating violence perpetration and 68% reported experiencing corporal punishment as children (n = 498). Analysis showed a significant positive association between corporal punishment and physical perpetration of dating violence (OR 1.30, 95% CI 1.07-1.59). Even after controlling for sex, ethnicity, age, parental education, and child physical abuse, childhood corporal punishment was associated significantly with physical dating violence perpetration (aOR 1.29, 95% CI 1.02-1.62).

Conclusions: The finding that childhood corporal punishment was associated with perpetration of young adult physical dating violence, even after controlling for several demographic variables and childhood physical abuse, adds to the growing literature demonstrating deleterious outcomes associated with corporal punishment.

What is the link between corporal punishment and child physical abuse?

Fréchette, S., Zoratti, M., & Romano, E. (2015). What is the link between corporal punishment and child physical abuse? Journal of Family Violence, 30, 135-148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-014-9663-9

This study aimed to contribute to the literature on corporal punishment by examining the link between spanking and child physical abuse. First, we examined the extent to which individuals who experienced spanking in childhood were at greater risk of also experiencing physical abuse by their parents. Second, we examined various parenting and family factors that could distinguish between spanking that occurred within and without a physically abusive context. A sample of 370 university students completed a questionnaire on disciplinary experiences at age 10. Results suggested that individuals who indicated having experienced spanking during childhood were at greater risk of also having experienced physical abuse. Among individuals who indicated having experienced spanking, greater spanking frequency, perceptions of impulsiveness in parental discipline, and reports of physical violence between parents significantly increased the risk of physical abuse. This research contributes to the growing evidence on the risks associated with child corporal punishment.

Long-term effects of child corporal punishment on depressive symptoms in young adults: Potential moderators and mediators.

Turner, H. A., & Muller, P. A. (2004). Long-term effects of child corporal punishment on depressive symptoms in young adults: Potential moderators and mediators. Journal of Family Issues, 25(6), 761-782. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0192513X03258313

Based on a sample of 649 students from 3 New England colleges, this study examined the long-term effects of childhood corporal punishment on symptoms of depression and considered factors that may moderate or mediate the association. Similar to national studies, approximately 40% of the sample reported experiencing some level of corporal punishment when they were 13 years old. Findings indicated that level of corporal punishment is positively related to depressive symptoms, independent of any history of abuse and the frequency of other forms of punishment. Although parental monitoring and perceived norms regarding corporal punishment had no direct or moderating effects, level of parental anger during corporal punishment was the strongest predictor of depression. The association between “angry corporal punishment” and symptoms of depression in young adulthood is partially mediated by mastery and self-esteem. Implications of these finding are discussed.

Exploring the link between corporal punishment and children’s cruelty to animals.

Flynn, C. (1999). Exploring the link between corporal punishment and children’s cruelty to animals. Journal of Marriage and Family, 61(4), 971-981. https://doi.org/10.2307/354017

The link between interpersonal violence and violence to animals has been suggested, but rarely studied empirically, especially by family scholars. This study of 267 college undergraduates examined the relationship between corporal punishment inflicted by parents and the perpetration of animal abuse. The findings revealed that males who committed animal cruelty in childhood or adolescence were physically punished more frequently by their fathers, both as preteens and teenagers, than males who did not perpetrate animal abuse. This relationship did not hold for males spanked by mothers or for females spanked by either parent. Regression analyses showed that the association between fathers' corporal punishment and sons' childhood animal cruelty persisted after controlling for child abuse, father-to-mother violence, and father's education. The implications of the association of animal abuse and family violence and its gendered nature are discussed.

Effect of corporal punishment on young children’s educational outcomes.

Maiti, A. (2021). Effect of corporal punishment on young children’s educational outcomes. Education Economics, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2021.1901073

It is argued that corporal punishment produces bad outcomes in both the short run and the long run. Instead of making students more attentive or motivated, corporal punishment leads to more delinquent behavior. In most developed countries, corporal punishment is banned in schools. However, in many developing countries, even if corporal punishment in schools is banned, the law may not be adequately enforced. Using a dataset from India, we show that corporal punishment in schools has a significantly negative impact on children's academic performance. To tackle the problem of endogeneity, we use the instrumental variables method and introduce a novel instrument.

Differentiating corporal punishment from physical abuse in the prediction of lifetime aggression.

King, A. R., Ratzak, A., Ballantyne, S., Knutson, S., Russell, T. D., Pogalz, C. R., & Breen, C. M. (2018). Differentiating corporal punishment from physical abuse in the prediction of lifetime aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 44(3), 306-315. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21753

Corporal punishment and parental physical abuse often co-occur during upbringing, making it difficult to differentiate their selective impacts on psychological functioning. Associations between corporal punishment and a number of lifetime aggression indicators were examined in this study after efforts to control the potential influence of various forms of co-occurring maltreatment (parental physical abuse, childhood sexual abuse, sibling abuse, peer bullying, and observed parental violence). College students (N = 1,136) provided retrospective self-reports regarding their history of aggression and levels of exposure to childhood corporal punishment and maltreatment experiences. Analyses focused on three hypotheses: 1) The odds of experiencing childhood physical abuse would be higher among respondents reporting frequent corporal punishment during upbringing; 2) Corporal punishment scores would predict the criterion aggression indices after control of variance associated with childhood maltreatment; 3) Aggression scores would be higher among respondents classified in the moderate and elevated corporal punishment risk groups. Strong support was found for the first hypothesis since the odds of childhood physical abuse recollections were higher (OR = 65.3) among respondents who experienced frequent (>60 total disciplinary acts) corporal punishment during upbringing. Partial support was found for the second and third hypotheses. Dimensional and categorical corporal punishment scores were associated significantly with half of the criterion measures. These findings support efforts to dissuade reliance on corporal punishment to manage child behavior.

Corporal punishment and children’s externalizing problems: A cross-sectional study of Tanzanian primary school aged children.

Hecker, T., Hermenau, K., Isele, D., & Elbert, T. (2014). Corporal punishment and children’s externalizing problems: A cross-sectional study of Tanzanian primary school aged children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(5), 884-892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.11.007

The adverse effect of harsh corporal punishment on mental health and psychosocial functioning in children has been repeatedly suggested by studies in industrialized countries. Nevertheless, corporal punishment has remained common practice not only in many homes, but is also regularly practiced in schools, particularly in low-income countries, as a measure to maintain discipline. Proponents of corporal punishment have argued that the differences in culture and industrial development might also be reflected in a positive relationship between the use of corporal punishment and improving behavioral problems in low-income nations. In the present study we assessed the occurrence of corporal punishment at home and in school in Tanzanian primary school students. We also examined the association between corporal punishment and externalizing problems. The 409 children (52% boys) from grade 2 to 7 had a mean age of 10.49 (SD = 1.89) years. Nearly all children had experienced corporal punishment at some point during their lifetime both in family and school contexts. Half of the respondents reported having experienced corporal punishment within the last year from a family member. A multiple sequential regression analysis revealed that corporal punishment by parents or by caregivers was positively related to children's externalizing problems. The present study provides evidence that Tanzanian children of primary school age are frequently exposed to extreme levels of corporal punishment, with detrimental consequences for externalizing behavior. Our findings emphasize the need to inform parents, teachers and governmental organizations, especially in low-income countries, about the adverse consequences of using corporal punishment be it at home or at school.

Impulsive corporal punishment by mothers and antisocial behavior and impulsiveness of children.

Straus, M. A., & Mouradian, V. E. (1998). Impulsive corporal punishment by mothers and antisocial behavior and impulsiveness of children. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 16(3), 353-374. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199822)16:3%3C353::AID-BSL313%3E3.0.CO;2-O

This study tested the hypothesis that corporal punishment (CP), such as spanking or slapping a child for purposes of correcting misbehavior, is associated with antisocial behavior (ASB) and impulsiveness by the child. The data were obtained through interviews with a probability sample of 933 mothers of children age 2–14 in two small American cities. Analyses of variance found that the more CP experienced by the child, the greater the tendency for the child to engage in ASB and to act impulsively. These relationships hold even after controlling for family socioeconomic status, the age and sex of the child, nurturance by the mother, and the level of non-corporal interventions by the mother. There were also significant interaction effects of CP with impulsiveness by the mother. When CP was carried out impulsively, it was most strongly related to child impulsiveness and ASB; when CP was done when the mother was under control, the relationship to child behavior problems was reduced but still present. ln view of the fact that there is a high risk of losing control when engaged in CP, even by parents who are not usually impulsive, and the fact that impulsive CP is so strongly associated with child behavior problems, the results of this study suggest that CP is an important risk factor for children developing a pattern of impulsive and antisocial behavior which, in turn, may contribute to the level of violence and other crime in society.

School corporal punishment and its associations with achievement and adjustment.

Gershoff, E., Sattler, K. M.P., Holden, G. W. (2019). School corporal punishment and its associations with achievement and adjustment. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 63, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.05.004

Corporal punishment in public schools is legal in nineteen states in the U.S. Over 100,000 students are disciplined with corporal punishment in public schools each year. Little is known about the forms school corporal punishment takes or about how school corporal punishment relates to students' outcomes. This study reports results from an anonymous online survey of emerging adults (ages 18 to 23) in the 19 states where school corporal punishment is legal. Of the more than 800 participants, 16% revealed that they experienced school corporal punishment. Propensity score matching was used to equate those who had experienced school corporal punishment and those who had not on a range of covariates. In regression models, having ever experienced school corporal punishment was linked with lower high school GPA, higher current depressive symptoms, and greater likelihood of spanking their own children in the future.

Corporal punishment and externalizing behaviors in toddlers: The moderating role of positive and harsh parenting.

Mendez, M., Durtschi, J., Neppl, T. K., & Stith, S. (2016). Corporal punishment and externalizing behaviors in toddlers: The moderating role of positive and harsh parenting. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(8), 887-895. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Ffam0000187

This study investigated whether corporal punishment when the child was two years old predicted child externalizing behaviors a year later, and whether or not this association was moderated by parents' observed behavior towards their child. Data came from 218 couples and their first born child. The frequency of fathers' corporal punishment when the child was two years old predicted child externalizing behaviors a year later, while controlling for initial levels of child externalizing behaviors. Also, observed positive and harsh parenting moderated the relationship between corporal punishment and child externalizing behaviors. These results highlight the importance of continuing to examine the effects of a commonly used form of discipline (i.e., corporal punishment) and the parental climate in which it is used.

Corporal punishment as a stressor among youth.

Turner, H. A., & Finkelhor, D. (1996). Corporal punishment as a stressor among youth. Journal of Marriage and Family, 58(1), 155-166. https://doi.org/10.2307/353384

This article addresses the impact of corporal punishment by parents on the psychological well-being of youth. The present research used the National Youth Victimization Prevention Study (NYVPS), a nationally representative sample of 1,042 boys and 958 girls, ages 10-16. Based on a stress-process framework, we examine: (a) the effects of frequency of corporal punishment experienced by youth ages 10-16 on psychological distress and clinically relevant depression and (b) the moderating influence of parental support on the associations between corporal punishment and psychological outcomes. Controlling for sociodemographic factors and physical abuse, our findings indicate a positive association between the frequency of corporal punishment and both psychological distress and depression. Although distress is greatest at higher frequencies of punishment, the association is also present at low and moderate levels of corporal punishment. An interaction between corporal punishment and parental support was also evident, showing that the impact of frequent punishment relative to no corporal punishment was greater in the context of high parental support.

Positive communication moderates the relationship between corporal punishment and child depressive symptoms.

Wimsatt, A. R., Fite, P. J., Grassetti, S. N., & Rathert, J. L. (2012). Positive communication moderates the relationship between corporal punishment and child depressive symptoms. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 18(4), 225-230. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-3588.2012.00682.x

Background: Findings are few and mixed regarding the moderating influence that supportive parenting might have on the link between corporal punishment and child depressive symptoms.

Method: A multiple regression model was estimated to examine proposed relationships in a 1-year longitudinal community-recruited sample of 89 children (56% male; 9–12 years).

Results: High levels of corporal punishment in tandem with high levels of supportive communication were associated with the highest levels of depressive symptoms.

Conclusions: Although supportive parenting behaviors have been shown to be beneficial for child outcomes, when considering a stress-process framework, simultaneous experiences of harsh and positive parenting may yield more negative outcomes.

Spanking by parents and subsequent antisocial behavior of children.

Straus., M. A., Sugarman, D. B., & Giles-Sims, J. (1997). Spanking by parents and subsequent antisocial behavior of children. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 151(8), 761-767. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.1997.02170450011002

Objective: To deal with the causal relationship between corporal punishment and antisocial behavior (ASB) by considering the level of ASB of the child at the start of the study.

Methods: Data from interviews with a national sample of 807 mothers of children aged 6 to 9 years in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth-Child Supplement. Analysis of variance was used to test the hypothesis that when parents use corporal punishment to correct ASB, it increases subsequent ASB. The analysis controlled for the level of ASB at the start of the study, family socio-economic status, sex of the child, and the extent to which the home provided emotional support and cognitive stimulation.

Results: Forty-four percent of the mothers reported spanking their children during the week prior to the study and they spanked them an average of 2.1 times that week. The more spanking at the start of the period, the higher the level of ASB 2 years later. The change is unlikely to be owing to the child's tendency toward ASB or to confounding with demographic characteristics or with parental deficiency in other key aspects of socialization because those variables were statistically controlled.

Conclusions: When parents use corporal punishment to reduce ASB, the long-term effect tends to be the opposite. The findings suggest that if parents replace corporal punishment by nonviolent modes of discipline, it could reduce the risk of ASB among children and reduce the level of violence in American society.

Corporal punishment bans and physical fighting in adolescents: An ecological study of 88 countries.

Elgar, F. J., Donnelly, P. D., Michaelson, V., Gariépy, G., Riehm, K. E., Walsh, S. D., & Pickett, W. (2018). Corporal punishment bans and physical fighting in adolescents: An ecological study of 88 countries. BMJ Open, 8(9), e021616. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-021616

Objectives: To examine the association between corporal punishment bans and youth violence at an international level.

Design: Ecological study of low-income to high-income 88 countries.

Setting: School-based health surveys of students.

Participants: 403 604 adolescents.

Interventions: National corporal punishment bans.

Primary outcome measure: Age-standardised prevalence of frequent physical fighting (ie, 4+ episodes in the previous year) for male and female adolescents in each country.

Results: Frequent fighting was more common in males (9.9%, 95% CI 9.1% to 10.7%) than females (2.8%, 95% CI 2.5% to 3.1%) and varied widely between countries, from 0.9% (95% CI 0.8% to 0.9%) in Costa Rican females to 34.8% (95% CI 34.7 to 35.0) in Samoan males. Compared with 20 countries with no ban, the group of 30 countries with full bans (in schools and in the home) experienced 69% the rate of fighting in males and 42% in females. Thirty-eight countries with partial bans (in schools but not in the home) experienced less fighting in females only (56% the rate found in countries without bans).

Conclusions: Country prohibition of corporal punishment is associated with less youth violence. Whether bans precipitated changes in child discipline or reflected a social milieu that inhibits youth violence remains unclear due to the study design and data limitations. However, these results support the hypothesis that societies that prohibit the use of corporal punishment are less violent for youth to grow up in than societies that have not.

Violence by children against mothers in relation to violence between parents and corporal punishment by parents.

Ulman, S., & Straus, M. A. (2019). Violence by children against mothers in relation to violence between parents and corporal punishment by parents. Journal of Comparative Studies, 34(4), 41-60. https://doi.org/10.3138/jcfs.34.1.41

This article examines violence by children against parents, with particular emphasis on violence against mothers. The data are from interviews with parents of a nationally representative sample of American children age 3 through 17 (N=l,023). Analyses of rates for the previous 12 months found that: (1) The younger the child, the higher the rate of child-to-parent violence (CPV). (2) At all ages, more children were violent to mothers than to fathers. (3) Both boys and girls hit mothers more than fathers. (4) At all ages, slightly more boys than girls hit parents. Tests of the theory that CPV reflects violence by the parents found that CPV was associated with violence by parents, regardless of whether the violence was husband- to-wife, wife-to-husband, corporal punishment, or physical abuse. In the absence of parent-to- child violence, CPV is rare. Because corporal punishment had the strongest relation to CPV, the findings suggest that steps to end violence against women cannot be limited to efforts to eliminate wife-beating, but should also include steps to end corporal punishment. Primary prevention is needed in the form of helping parents set an example of non-violence by not using corporal punishment.

Assault and injury of dating partners by university students in 19 countries and its relation to corporal punishment experienced as a child.

Douglas, E. M., & Straus, M. A. (2006). Assault and injury of dating partners by university students in 19 countries and its relation to corporal punishment experienced as a child. European Journal of Criminology, 3(3), 293-318. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1477370806065584

This study tested the hypothesis that the more prevalent the use of corporal punishment by parents in a social setting, the higher is the prevalence of assault and injury of a dating partner. The sample is from 36 universities in 19 nations (N = 9549). The median percent of students who experienced corporal punishment was 56 percent (range 13-73 percent). The median rate of assaulting a dating partner was 30 percent (range 15-47 percent), and of injuring a dating partner 7 percent (range = 1-20 percent). The results indicate that settings in which the rate of corporal punishment experienced by university students is high, tend to be settings in which the rate of students assaulting and injuring a dating partner is also high. These findings are discussed in the context of theories to explain partner violence and for primary prevention of violence.

Children experiencing violence. I: Parental use of corporal punishment.

Youssef, R. M., Attia, M. SEL., & Kamel, M. I. Youssef, R. M., Attia, M. S., & Kamel, M. I. (1998). Children experiencing violence. I: Parental use of corporal punishment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22(10), 959–973. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(98)00077-5

Objective: This study was undertaken to reveal the prevalence of corporal punishment in Alexandria and its’ correlates with family background and child’s behavior and characteristics.

Methods: A cross sectional survey targeting preparatory and secondary school children was conducted. The multistage random sample technique was adopted to select a representative sample of this population. Subjects were requested to complete a self-administered questionnaire to collect relevant information. Data were analyzed using the univariate and multivariate analyses.

Results: This study revealed that more than one-third (37.47%) of children were disciplined physically in the form of beating and a few were also burned or tied. In 25.83% of them, this harsh discipline led to physical injuries of variable degrees of severity amounting to fractures, loss of consciousness, and permanent disability. Predictive family background for the use of corporal punishment were: living in an apartment shared with strangers; high crowding index; constant fights and quarrels between family members; lack of regular relation with relatives and acquaintance as well as an income insufficient to meet the family basic needs. Predictive child’s characteristics and behavior included young age; disobedience; telling lies; destroying others’ belongings; acting disrespectfully to parents; communicating poorly with their parents; running away from home; and poor school achievement, in addition to other determinants.

Conclusion: A proportion of children are subjected to extreme physical brutality amounting to abuse in a disciplinary context. Parents’ education and the establishment of effective parent-child communication are deemed essential to combat this phenomenon.

Parental corporal punishment and children’s problem behaviors: The moderating effects of parental inductive reasoning in China.

Fu, C., Niu, H., & Wang, M. (2019). Parental corporal punishment and children’s problem behaviors: The moderating effects of parental inductive reasoning in China. Child and Youth Services Review, 99, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.01.028

Previous research has linked parental corporal punishment and children's problem behaviors, whereas little is known about the effects of fathers' corporal punishment. Moreover, stress-buffering model suggested that parenting practices that are characterized by acceptance, supportive and responsiveness such as inductive reasoning may buffer children against the negative impacts of stressful life events including parental corporal punishment. As such, the current research examined the potential moderating effects of fathers' and mothers' inductive reasoning on the associations between their corporal punishment and children's problem behaviors, and further explored whether the moderating effects of inductive reasoning would be more stronger in same gender dyads (i.e., mother & daughter, father & son) than in mixed gender dyads (i.e., mother & son, father & daughter) within Chinese families. The Chinese version of Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC), the parental inductive reasoning items from the Iowa Youth and Families Project, the Youth Self-Report (YSR) and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) were used as the main assessment tools. Utilizing a sample of 675 elementary school-age children and their parents, similar patterns of findings between same gender dyads and mixed gender dyads emerged. Both mothers' and fathers' corporal punishment were directly associated with children's problem behaviors, whereas their inductive reasoning failed to moderate these associations. Findings from the current study suggested that it may be difficult for positive parenting (e.g., inductive reasoning) to counteract the adverse effects that parental harsh discipline (e.g., corporal punishment) has on children adjustment, and it may be more meaningful for intervention programs to focus on decreasing both fathers' and mothers' harsh discipline.

Deviant peer affiliation as an explanatory mechanism in the association between corporal punishment and physical aggression: A longitudinal study among Chinese adolescents.

Zhu, J., Yu, C., Bao, Z., Jianh, Y., Zhang, W. Chen, Y., Qiu, B., & Zhang, J. (2017). Deviant peer affiliation as an explanatory mechanism in the association between corporal punishment and physical aggression: A longitudinal study among Chinese adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 45, 1537-1551. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-016-0259-0

Previous research has focused primarily on corporal punishment as a cause and adolescents’ physical aggression as an outcome. However, there is a large gap in knowledge of the potentially bidirectional association and explanatory mechanism underlying the association between corporal punishment and physical aggression. The current study, using a longitudinal design across three time points (the fall semester of 7th grade, the fall of 8th grade, and the fall of 9th grade), aimed to a) examine the reciprocal processes between corporal punishment and physical aggression, and b) explore whether deviant peer affiliation may explain such reciprocal connections. Only adolescents participating in all the three time points were included in this study, resulting in a final sample of 342 adolescents (175 boys, 167 girls) who completed questionnaires regarding corporal punishment, deviant peer affiliation, and aggression. Gender, age and socioeconomic status were controlled for in the analyses. Autoregressive cross-lagged models showed that the results did not support the direct reciprocal effect between corporal punishment and physical aggression among Chinese adolescents. A direct longitudinal link from corporal punishment to physical aggression was found, however, the inverse association was not significant. Moreover, regarding the longitudinal underlying process, in one direction, corporal punishment at 7th grade predicted higher levels of deviant peer affiliation at 8th grade. In turn, higher deviant peer affiliation at 8th grade predicted increased physical aggression at 9th grade. At the same time, in the other direction, adolescent physical aggression at 7th grade significantly predicted deviant peer affiliation at 8th grade. In turn, higher deviant peer affiliation at 8th grade predicted decreased corporal punishment at 9th grade. Identifying the direct and underlying reciprocal processes between corporal punishment and adolescent physical aggression has important implications for an integrative framework of theory and prevention.

Testing the link between dyadic concordance in corporal punishment, positive parenting, and crime in an international sample of young adults.

Proulx, M. L., Douglas, E. M., & Straus, M. A. (2018). Testing the link between dyadic concordance in corporal punishment, positive parenting, and crime in an international sample of young adults. International Journal of Law, Policy, and the Family, 32(3), 259-280. https://doi.org/10.1093/lawfam/eby010

Previous research on corporal punishment (CP) has found associations between CP and detrimental child outcomes including depression, behavioural problems, and crime. Conversely, positive parenting has been found to foster positive child outcomes but, positive parenting does not ameliorate the negative effects of CP. To date, research has not examined how parents’ differential use of CP might be related to crime, while still controlling for positive parenting. The present study seeks to address the gaps in the CP literature by examining the effects of CP and positive parenting on criminality within the context of dyadic concordance types (DCTs). DCTs examine the behaviour of both parents in disciplining children with CP: father-only, mother-only, both, or neither parents. Using the large-scale, International Parenting Study (n = 9,376), we determined that CP perpetrated by both parents or by the mother only were most significantly associated with criminal propensity and criminal activity of individuals in early adulthood.

Physical punishment and Colombian children and adolescents’ cognitive and behavioral outcomes.

Cuartas, J., Ward, K. P., Ma, J., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2020). Physical punishment and Colombian children and adolescents’ cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 68, 101140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101140

Research from U.S. samples has shown consistent associations between physical punishment and adverse child outcomes. Nonetheless, little is known about the effects of physical punishment in countries where its use is more accepted. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between physical punishment and children and adolescents' outcomes in Colombia using longitudinal data from a national sample (N = 5801). Matching techniques were used to improve balance in covariates between children and adolescents exposed and not exposed to physical punishment. Findings suggest that children and adolescents' exposure to physical punishment was linked to higher internalizing and externalizing problems, as well as lower prosocial behaviors and receptive vocabulary. These results highlight the importance of implementing legislation and interventions aimed at eliminating physical punishment in Colombia.

Correlates and consequences of spanking and verbal punishment for low-income White, African American, and Mexican American toddlers.

Berlin, L. J., Ispa, J. M., Fine, M. A., Malone, P. S., Brooks-Gunn, J., Brady-Smith, C., Ayoub, C. & Bai. Y. (2009). Correlates and consequences of spanking and verbal punishment for low-income White, African American, and Mexican American toddlers. Child Development, 80(5), 1403-1420. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01341.x

This study examined the prevalence, predictors, and outcomes of spanking and verbal punishment in 2,573 low-income White, African American, and Mexican American toddlers at ages 1, 2, and 3. Both spanking and verbal punishment varied by maternal race/ethnicity. Child fussiness at age 1 predicted spanking and verbal punishment at all 3 ages. Cross-lagged path analyses indicated that spanking (but not verbal punishment) at age 1 predicted child aggressive behavior problems at age 2 and lower Bayley mental development scores at age 3. Neither child aggressive behavior problems nor Bayley scores predicted later spanking or verbal punishment. In some instances, maternal race/ethnicity and/or emotional responsiveness moderated the effects of spanking and verbal punishment on child outcomes.

Spanking and child development during the first 5 years of life.

Maguire-Jack, K., Gromoske, A. N., Berger, L. M. (2012). Spanking and child development during the first 5 years of life. Child Development, 83(6), 1960-1977. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01820.x

Using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 3,870) and cross-lagged path analysis, the authors examined whether spanking at ages 1 and 3 is adversely associated with cognitive skills and behavior problems at ages 3 and 5. The authors found spanking at age 1 was associated with a higher level of spanking and externalizing behavior at age 3, and spanking at age 3 was associated with a higher level of internalizing and externalizing behavior at age 5. The associations between spanking at age 1 and behavioral problems at age 5 operated predominantly through ongoing spanking at age 3. The authors did not find an association between spanking at age 1 and cognitive skills at age 3 or 5.

Associations of neighborhood disorganization and maternal spanking with children’s aggression: A fixed-effects regression analysis.

Ma, J., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Lee, S. J. (2018). Associations of neighborhood disorganization and maternal spanking with children’s aggression: A fixed-effects regression analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 76, 106-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.10.013

This study employed fixed effects regression that controls for selection bias, omitted variables bias, and all time-invariant aspects of parent and child characteristics to examine the simultaneous associations between neighborhood disorganization, maternal spanking, and aggressive behavior in early childhood using data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS). Analysis was based on 2,472 children and their mothers who participated in Wave 3 (2001–2003; child age 3) and Wave 4 (2003–2006; child age 5) of the FFCWS. Results indicated that higher rates of neighborhood crime and violence predicted higher levels of child aggression. Maternal spanking in the past year, whether frequent or infrequent, was also associated with increases in aggressive behavior. This study contributes statistically rigorous evidence that exposure to violence in the neighborhood as well as the family context are predictors of child aggression. We conclude with a discussion for the need for multilevel prevention and intervention approaches that target both community and parenting factors.

Mothers’ spanking of 3-year-old children and subsequent risk of children’s aggressive behavior.

Taylor, C. A., Manganello, J. A., Lee, S. J., Rice, J. C. (2010). Mothers’ spanking of 3-year-old children and subsequent risk of children’s aggressive behavior. Pediatrics, 125(5), e1057-e1065. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-2678

OBJECTIVE: The goal was to examine the association between the use of corporal punishment (CP) against 3-year-old children and subsequent aggressive behavior among those children.

METHODS: Respondents (N = 2461) participated in the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study (1998–2005), a population-based, birth cohort study of children born in 20 large US cities. Maternal reports of CP, children's aggressive behaviors at 3 and 5 years of age, and a host of key demographic features and potential confounding factors, including maternal child physical maltreatment, psychological maltreatment, and neglect, intimate partner aggression victimization, stress, depression, substance use, and consideration of abortion, were assessed.

RESULTS: Frequent use of CP (ie, mother's use of spanking more than twice in the previous month) when the child was 3 years of age was associated with increased risk for higher levels of child aggression when the child was 5 years of age (adjusted odds ratio: 1.49 [95% confidence interval: 1.2–1.8]; P < .0001), even with controlling for the child's level of aggression at age 3 and the aforementioned potential confounding factors and key demographic features.

CONCLUSIONS: Despite American Academy of Pediatrics recommendations to the contrary, most parents in the United States approve of and have used CP as a form of child discipline. The current findings suggest that even minor forms of CP, such as spanking, increase risk for increased child aggressive behavior. Importantly, these findings cannot be attributed to possible confounding effects of a host of other maternal parenting risk factors.

Hugs, not hits: Warmth and spanking as predictors of child social competence.

Altschul, I., Lee, S. J., & Gershoff, E. T. (2016). Hugs, not hits: Warmth and spanking as predictors of child social competence. Journal of Marriage and Family, 78(3), 695-714. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12306

Many parents believe that spanking is an effective way to promote children's positive behavior, yet few studies have examined spanking and the development of social competence. Using information from 3,279 families with young children who participated in a longitudinal study of urban families, this study tested competing hypotheses regarding whether maternal spanking or maternal warmth predicted increased social competence and decreased child aggression over time and which parent behavior was a stronger predictor of these changes. The frequency of maternal spanking was unrelated to maternal warmth. Findings from cross-lagged path models indicated that spanking was not associated with children's social competence, but spanking predicted increases in child aggression. Conversely, maternal warmth predicted children's greater social competence but was not associated with aggression. Warmth was a significantly stronger predictor of children's social competence than spanking, suggesting that warmth may be a more effective way to promote children's social competence than spanking.

Parental spanking and subsequent risk for child aggression in father-involved families of young children.

Lee, S. J., Taylor, C. A., Altschul, I., & Rice, J. C. (2013). Parental spanking and subsequent risk for child aggression in father-involved families of young children. Child and Youth Services Review, 35(9), 1476-1485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.05.016

This study examined separate and combined maternal and paternal use of spanking with children at age 3 and children's subsequent aggressive behavior at age 5. The sample was derived from a birth cohort study and included families (n = 923) in which both parents lived with the child at age 3. In this sample, 44% of 3-year-olds were spanked 2 times or more in the past month by either parent or both parents. In separate analyses, being spanked more than twice in the prior month at age 3, by either mother or father, was associated with increased child aggression at 5 years. In combined analyses, there was a dose–response association; the greatest risk for child aggression was reported when both parents spanked more than twice in the prior month (adjusted odds ratio: 2.01; [confidence interval: 1.03–3.94]). Violence prevention initiatives should target and engage mothers and fathers in anticipatory guidance efforts aimed at increasing the use of effective and non-aggressive child discipline techniques and reducing the use of spanking.

The relationships between harsh physical punishment and child maltreatment in childhood and intimate partner violence in adulthood.

Afifi, T. O., Mota, N., Sareen, J., & MacMillan, H. L. (2017). The relationships between harsh physical punishment and child maltreatment in childhood and intimate partner violence in adulthood. BMC Public Health, 17, 493. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4359-8

Background: Physical punishment of children is an important public health concern. Yet, few studies have examined how physical punishment is related to other types of child maltreatment and violence across the lifespan. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to examine if harsh physical punishment (i.e., being pushed, grabbed, shoved, hit, and/or slapped without causing marks, bruises, or injury) is associated with an increased likelihood of more severe childhood maltreatment (i.e., physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV)) in childhood and perpetration or victimization of IPV in adulthood.

Methods: Data were drawn from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions collected in 2004 to 2005 (n = 34,402, response rate = 86.7%), a representative United States adult sample.

Results: Harsh physical punishment was associated with increased odds of childhood maltreatment, including emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and exposure to IPV after adjusting for sociodemographic factors, family history of dysfunction, and other child maltreatment types (range 1.6 to 26.6). Harsh physical punishment was also related to increased odds of experiencing IPV in adulthood (range 1.4 to 1.7).

Conclusions: It is important for parents and professionals working with children to be aware that pushing, grabbing, shoving, hitting, or slapping children may increase the likelihood of emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and exposure to IPV in childhood and also experiencing IPV victimization and/or perpetration in later adulthood.

School corporal punishment, family tension, and students’ internalizing problems: Evidence from India.

Deb, S., Kumar, A., Holden, G. W., & Rowe, L. S. (2016). School corporal punishment, family tension, and students’ internalizing problems: Evidence from India. School Psychology International, 38(1), 60-77. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0143034316681378

There is considerable evidence that parental corporal punishment (CP) is positively associated with children’s behavioral and mental health problems. However, there is very little evidence addressing whether CP perpetrated by teachers or school staff is similarly associated with problematic student functioning. To address this gap in the research literature, data were collected from students in a locale where school CP continues to be widely practiced. Participants were 519 adolescents attending public or private schools in Puducherry, a city in eastern India. Students completed surveys assessing school CP, internalizing problems, social support, and resilience. The results indicated that 62% of the students reported experiencing school CP in the past 12 months, with males and those attending public schools being significantly more likely to report school CP than females and those in private schools. Youth who reported school CP reported more anxiety and depression. That relation was more pronounced in youth who reported family tension. Social support and resilience did not moderate the relations. The findings add to the substantial evidence about negative associations regarding the use of CP but in a new venue—the school, and provide some evidence for the need to change how students are disciplined in schools in India and elsewhere.

Dimensions of physical punishment and their associations with children’s cognitive performance and school adjustment.

Font, S. A., & Cage, J. (2018). Dimensions of physical punishment and their associations with children’s cognitive performance and school adjustment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 75, 29-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.008

This study examined how a range of physical punishment measures, ranging from mild corporal punishment to physical abuse, are associated with cognitive performance, school engagement, and peer isolation over a 3- year span among 658 children initially observed between the ages of 8 and 14. Physical punishment was captured in three groups: mild corporal punishment, harsh corporal punishment, and physical abuse, and both caregiver- and child-reported punishment measures were considered. After accounting for socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, only initial exposure to physical abuse was significantly associated with declines in cognitive performance. However, all forms of physical punishment were associated with declines in school engagement, and harsh corporal punishment was associated with increased peer isolation. Our findings were relatively consistent regardless of whether physical punishment was reported by the child or caregiver. Overall, our findings suggest that the prevention of physical abuse may enhance children's cognitive performance, but that alone may not be sufficient to ensure children are engaged and well-adjusted in school.

Physical punishment, childhood abuse and psychiatric disorders.

Afifi, T. O., Browridge, D. A., Cox, B. J., & Sareen, J. (2006). Physical punishment, childhood abuse and psychiatric disorders. Child Abuse & Neglect, 30(10), 1093-1103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.04.006

Objectives: Physical punishment, as a means of disciplining children, may be considered a mild form of childhood adversity. Although many outcomes of physical punishment have been investigated, little attention has been given to the impact of physical punishment on later adult psychopathology. Also, it has been stated that physical punishment by a loving parent is not associated with negative outcomes; however, this theory has not been empirically tested with regard to psychiatric disorders. The main objective of the present study was to investigate three categories of increasing severity of childhood adversity (no physical punishment or abuse, physical punishment only, and child abuse) to examine whether the childhood experience of physical punishment alone was associated with adult psychopathology, after adjusting for sociodemographic variables and parental bonding dimensions.

Methods: Data were drawn from the nationally representative National Comorbidity Survey (NCS, n = 5,877; age 15–54 years; response rate 82.4%). Binary logistic and multinomial logistic regression models were used to determine the odds of experiencing psychiatric disorders.

Results: Physical punishment was associated with increased odds of major depression (AOR = 1.22; 95% CI = 1.01–1.48), alcohol abuse/dependence (AOR = 1.32; 95% CI = 1.08–1.61), and externalizing problems (AOR = 1.30; 95% CI = 1.05–1.60) in adulthood after adjusting for sociodemographic variables and parental bonding dimensions. Individuals experiencing physical punishment only were at increased odds of adult psychopathology compared to those experiencing no physical punishment/abuse and at decreased odds when compared to those who were abused.

Conclusions: Physical punishment is a mild form of childhood adversity that shows an association with adult psychopathology.

Corporal punishment in Tanzania’s schools.

Feinstein, S., & Mwahombela, L. (2010). Corporal punishment in Tanzania’s schools. International Review of Education, 56, 399-410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-010-9169-5

The purpose of this survey was to acquire descriptive information regarding corporal punishment in Tanzania’s O-level secondary schools. 448 individuals participated in the study: 254 teachers and 194 students, all from government or private secondary schools in the Iringa Region of Tanzania. In addition, 14 students and 14 teachers were interviewed. It was found that corporal punishment was the most common form of punishment in secondary schools. The majority of teachers supported its continued use, but believed in moderation. The majority of students and teachers were unaware of national laws to restrict corporal punishment. There was agreement between students and teachers that corporal punishment was used for major and minor student offences such as misbehaviour and tardiness. Students reported disliking the practice and believed it was ineffective and resulted in emotional, as well as physical, distress.

Spanking and child development across the first decade of life.

MacKenzie, M. J., Nicklas, E. Waldfogel, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2013). Spanking and child development across the first decade of life. Pediatrics, 132(5), e1118-e1125. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-1227

OBJECTIVE: To examine the prevalence of maternal and paternal spanking of children at 3 and 5 years of age and the associations between spanking and children’s externalizing behavior and receptive vocabulary through age 9.

METHODS: The Fragile Families and Child Well-Being Study, a longitudinal birth cohort study of children in 20 medium to large US cities, was used. Parental reports of spanking were assessed at age 3 and 5, along with child externalizing behavior and receptive vocabulary at age 9 (N = 1933). The data set also included an extensive set of child and family controls (including earlier measures of the child outcomes).

RESULTS: Overall, 57% of mothers and 40% of fathers engaged in spanking when children were age 3, and 52% of mothers and 33% of fathers engaged in spanking at age 5. Maternal spanking at age 5, even at low levels, was associated with higher levels of child externalizing behavior at age 9, even after an array of risks and earlier child behavior were controlled for. Father’s high-frequency spanking at age 5 was associated with lower child receptive vocabulary scores at age 9.

CONCLUSIONS: Spanking remains a typical rearing experience for American children. These results demonstrate negative effects of spanking on child behavioral and cognitive development in a longitudinal sample from birth through 9 years of age.

Transactional cascading relations between early spanking and children’s social-emotional development.

Gromoske, A. N., & Maguire-Jack, K. (2012). Transactional cascading relations between early spanking and children’s social-emotional development. Journal of Marriage and Family, 74(5), 1054-1068. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.01013.x

The authors tested a series of models linking spanking and child social-emotional outcomes using a sample of 3,870 families from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing study. Spanking was measured by the number of times the focal child was spanked by the mother at ages 1, 3, and 5. Internalizing and externalizing symptoms were assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist at ages 3 and 5. Child emotionality was used to index child behavior at age 1. A series of nested transactional and cascade models was tested through structural equation modeling. The final model supported transactional effects between spanking and child externalizing behaviors over child ages 1, 3, and 5. In addition, one cascade effect was found: Spanking at age 1 was related to greater externalizing behavior at age 3, which was related to greater internalizing behavior at age 5. Implications for family theory and future research are discussed.

Harsh physical punishment in childhood and adult physical health.

Afifi, T. O., Mota, N., MacMillan, H. L., & Sareen, J. (2013). Harsh physical punishment in childhood and adult physical health. Pediatrics, 132(2), e333-e340. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2012-4021

BACKGROUND: The use of physical punishment is controversial. No studies have comprehensively examined the relationship between physical punishment and several physical health conditions in a nationally representative sample. The current study investigated possible associations between harsh physical punishment (ie, pushing, grabbing, shoving, slapping, and hitting) in the absence of more severe child maltreatment (ie, physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and exposure to intimate partner violence) and several physical health conditions.

METHODS: Data were from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions collected in 2004 and 2005 (n = 34 226 in the current analysis). The survey was conducted with a representative US adult population sample (20 years or older). Eight past year physical health condition categories were assessed. Models were adjusted for sociodemographic variables, family history of dysfunction, and Axis I and II mental disorders.

RESULTS: Harsh physical punishment was associated with higher odds of cardiovascular disease (borderline significance), arthritis, and obesity after adjusting for sociodemographic variables, family history of dysfunction, and Axis I and II mental disorders (adjusted odds ratios ranged from 1.20 to 1.30).

CONCLUSIONS: Harsh physical punishment in the absence of child maltreatment is associated with some physical health conditions in a general population sample. These findings inform the ongoing debate around the use of physical punishment and provide evidence that harsh physical punishment independent of child maltreatment is associated with a higher likelihood of physical health conditions.

Associations of harsh physical punishment and child maltreatment in childhood with antisocial behaviors in adulthood.

Afifi, T. O., Fortier, J., Sareen, J., & Tailliue, T. (2019). Associations of harsh physical punishment and child maltreatment in childhood with antisocial behaviors in adulthood. JAMA Network Open, 2(1), e187374. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.7374

Importance: Inquiry into what childhood experiences are associated with antisocial behaviors in adulthood is necessary for prioritizing and informing efforts for effective prevention.

Importance: Inquiry into what childhood experiences are associated with antisocial behaviors in adulthood is necessary for prioritizing and informing efforts for effective prevention.

Design, Setting, and Participants: Cross-sectional study using data on the general US population obtained from the National Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions Wave 3 from April 2012 to June 2013. Participants were civilian, noninstitutionalized adults 18 years and older. This study used a multistage probability sampling design (response rate, 60.1%). Data were analyzed from January 25 to November 27, 2018.

Exposures: Harsh physical punishment included pushing, grabbing, shoving, slapping, and hitting. Child maltreatment included physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect, and exposure to intimate partner violence.

Main Outcomes or Measures: Lifetime antisocial personality disorder behaviors since age 15 years were assessed using the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule-5 based on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition) criteria.

Results: The number of study participants was 36 309, with 15 862 men (weighted percentage, 48.1%) and 20 447 women (weighted percentage, 51.9%); mean (SE) age was 46.54 (0.19) years. The prevalence of harsh physical punishment and child maltreatment was 18.1% and 46.7%, respectively. Harsh physical punishment only (adjusted β, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.50-0.75), child maltreatment only (adjusted β, 0.65; 95% CI, 0.60-0.69), and harsh physical punishment and child maltreatment (adjusted β, 1.46; 95% CI, 1.38-1.54) were associated with adult antisocial behaviors. It is estimated that harsh physical punishment and/or child maltreatment might account for approximately 45.5% of antisocial behaviors among men in the United States and 47.3% antisocial behaviors among women in the United States.

Conclusions and Relevance: Harsh physical punishment and child maltreatment appear to be associated with adult antisocial behaviors. Preventing harsh physical punishment and child maltreatment in childhood may reduce antisocial behaviors among adults in the United States.

A Bayesian analysis of associations between neighborhoods, spanking and child externalizing behavior.

Grogan-Kaylor, A., Castillo, B., Ma, J., Ward, K. P., Lee, S. J., Pace, G. T., & Park, J. (2020). A Bayesian analysis of associations between neighborhoods, spanking and child externalizing behavior. Children and Youth Services Review, 112, 104930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104930

Background: A large body of research has found that corporal punishment is associated with increases in children’s behavior problems. However, questions remain as to whether or not the relationship between corporal punishment and behavior problems is equally true across contexts.

Objective: To examine the degree to which the effects of corporal punishment are equivalent across neighborhoods. Specifically, is corporal punishment equivalently associated with child behavior problems in neighborhoods that are perceived to be unsafe or disadvantaged, as compared to neighborhoods that are perceived to be less disadvantaged?

Participants: 2703 participants in the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study.

Methods: We employed Bayesian regression methods, to examine the association of neighborhood disadvantage, corporal punishment, and their interaction, with child behavior problems.

Results: Findings suggest that both neighborhood disadvantage (β = 0.070) and parental use of corporal punishment (β = 0.169) had main effect associations with child behavior. However, there was no evidence for an interaction of neighborhood disadvantage and corporal punishment use.

Conclusions: Both corporal punishment and neighborhood disadvantage were associated with increases in child behavior problems. Corporal punishment appears to be equally deleterious across neighborhood contexts.

Spanking in early childhood and later behavior problems: A prospective study of infants and young toddlers.

Slade, E. P., & Wissow, L. S. (2004). Spanking in early childhood and later behavior problems: A prospective study of infants and young toddlers. Pediatrics, 113(5), 132-1330. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.113.5.1321

Objective. To explore the relationship of spanking frequency before age 2 with behavior problems near time of entry into school.

Methods. Children who were younger than 2 years were followed up ∼4 years later, after they had entered school. The likelihood of significant behavior problems at follow-up was estimated in multivariate analyses that controlled for baseline spanking frequency and other characteristics. Participants were mothers from a large-scale national study and their children. Statistical analysis included an ethnically diverse sample of 1966 children aged 0 to 23 months at baseline. Two dichotomous indicators of behavior problems were used. The first indicated that maternal rating of child behavior problems exceeded a threshold. The second indicated that a mother met with a school administrator to discuss her child's behavior problems.

Results. White non-Hispanic children who were spanked more frequently before age 2 were substantially more likely to have behavior problems after entry into school, controlling for other factors. For Hispanic and black children, associations between spanking frequency and behavior problems were not statistically significant and were not consistent across outcome measures.

Conclusion. Among white non-Hispanic children but not among black and Hispanic children, spanking frequency before age 2 is significantly and positively associated with child behavior problems at school age. These findings are consistent with those reported in studies of children older than 2 years but extend these findings to children who are spanked beginning at a relatively early age.

Corporal punishment and the growth trajectory of children’s antisocial behavior.

Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2005). Corporal punishment and the growth trajectory of children’s antisocial behavior. Child Maltreatment, 10(3), 283-292. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1077559505277803

Despite considerable research, the relationship between corporal punishment and antisocial behavior is unclear. This analysis examined (a) the functional form of this relationship, (b) the correlation of initial antisocial behavior and changes in antisocial behavior, (c) differences in the relationship of corporal punishment and antisocial behavior by race, and (d) whether this relationship could be accounted for by unmeasured characteristics of children and their families. Data from 6,912 children in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth were analyzed using hierarchical linear models. Findings suggested that corporal punishment has a relationship with children’s initial antisocial behavior and with changes in antisocial behavior. No evidence was found for differences in the effect of corporal punishment across racial groups. The relationship between corporal punishment and antisocial behavior persists even when accounting for unmeasured time invariant characteristics of children and families. The findings suggest that corporal punishment is not a preferable technique for disciplining children.

Physical discipline and behavior problems in African American, European American, and Hispanic children: Emotional support as a moderator.

McCloyd, V. C., & Smith, J. (2004). Physical discipline and behavior problems in African American, European American, and Hispanic children: Emotional support as a moderator. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64, 40-53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00040.x

Using data collected over a 6-year period on a sample of 1,039 European American children, 550 African American children, and 401 Hispanic children from the children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, this study assessed whether maternal emotional support of the child moderates the relation between spanking and behavior problems. Children were 4–5 years of age in the first of 4 waves of data used (1988, 1990, 1992, 1994). At each wave, mothers reported their use of spanking and rated their children's behavior problems. Maternal emotional support of the child was based on interviewer observations conducted as part of the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment. For each of the 3 racial-ethnic groups, spanking predicted an increase in the level of problem behavior over time, controlling for income-needs ratio and maternal emotional support. Maternal emotional support moderated the link between spanking and problem behavior. Spanking was associated with an increase in behavior problems over time in the context of low levels of emotional support, but not in the context of high levels of emotional support. This pattern held for all 3 racial-ethnic groups.

The effect of spanking on early social-emotional skills.

Cuartas, J. (2021). The effect of spanking on early social-emotional skills. Child Development, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13646

Whether spanking is detrimental for social-emotional (SE) development remains controversial, mostly due to disputes around the internal and external validity of existing evidence. This study examined the effect of spanking on the SE development of Bhutanese children, using a national, longitudinal sample (N = 1377; Mage = 50.5 months old; 50% girls). Following best-practice recommendations for mitigating issues of selection bias in observational developmental research, the study employed conservative methods (i.e., child fixed-effects and lagged-dependent variables) and robustness checks to assess the internal validity of estimates. Across approaches, spanking predicted reductions in SE skills of .09–.17 SD, even after controlling for all time-invariant confounders and baseline levels of SE skills. These findings strengthen the argument that spanking might be harmful to young children's SE development.

Unravelling the parent-child contexts in which corporal punishment predicts increases vs. decreases in children’s aggression.

Peets, K., Hodges, E. V. E., & Kikas, E. (2021). Unravelling the parent-child contexts in which corporal punishment predicts increases vs. decreases in children’s aggression. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2021.1907753

Objective: This study tested whether the longitudinal effects of mothers' and fathers' corporal punishment on children's aggression would vary depending on the context of the parent-child relationship (gender of the parent-child dyad, other parenting practices).

Method: Participants were 325 children (Mage = 7.44 years, SD = .50) and their parents from Estonia who participated in a longitudinal study. Both mothers and fathers filled out measures of parenting practices in Grade 1 (corporal punishment, warmth, behavioral and psychological control). Teachers rated children's aggressive behavior in Grade 1 and 3.

Results: We found that the effects of both mothers' and fathers' corporal punishment on changes in children's aggressive behavior were conditional. In contexts that were characterized by a lack of parental warmth or overuse of behavioral control, corporal punishment was associated with increases in aggression; in parent-child relationships with high levels of parental affection or low levels of behavioral control, it was unrelated to, or associated with, decreases in aggression. Some of these conditional effects were specific to the gender of the parent and the child.

Conclusions: Our findings suggest that we should try to better understand the complexities of different parent-child relationships that magnify vs. minimize the negative consequences of corporal punishment.

Recollections of maternal and paternal punitive discipline in childhood and violent attitudes and behaviors in adulthood: A mediation model.

Koukouli, S., & Kalaitzaki, A. E. (2021). Recollections of maternal and paternal punitive discipline in childhood and violent attitudes and behaviors in adulthood: A mediation model. Violence and Victims, 36(3), 381-400. https://doi.org/10.1891/vv-d-19-00005

This cross-sectional retrospective study on a convenience sample of 973 Greek undergraduate students examined whether the violent socialization in childhood and the criminal history in adolescence would be mediators between parents' harsh discipline and young adults' violent attitudes and behaviors (VA/B). Structural Equation Modelling indicated that both the mothers' and fathers' punitive discipline at age 10 have an indirect impact, through the mediators, on young adults' VA/B. A direct effect was also found from mothers' and fathers' punitive discipline to violence approval and from fathers' punitive discipline to antisocial personality symptoms, and corporal punishment law attitude. The findings suggest that early experiences of harsh discipline may increase the risk of adult's violence and call for multilevel prevention and intervention programs targeting both parents and children.

Psychological and physical abuse towards four-year-old children as reported by their parents: A national Finnish survey.

Leppäkoski, T., Vuoronmaa, M., & Paavilainen, E. (2021). Psychological and physical abuse towards four-year-old children as reported by their parents: A national Finnish survey. Child Abuse & Neglect, 118, 105127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105127

Background: In Finnish society, child maltreatment is a health and social problem with harmful consequences. Identifying families at risk may help preventing child maltreatment recurrence.

Objective: The aim of this nationwide retrospective cross-sectional study was to describe the child- and family-related risk factors associated with physical and psychological abuse experienced by 4-year-old children.

Methods: This study analyzed nationwide survey data collected by the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare. Overall, 17,009 parents (46%) visiting at a child health clinic filled out the survey consent form. For 8720 children, one or both parents completed the questionnaire (24%). Analyses were carried out using χ2 tests and binary logistic regression.

Results: Of the 4-year-olds, 44% had experienced at least one form of psychological abuse and 14% physical abuse. These forms of violence co-occurred in 25% of the reported cases (p < 001). Intimate partner violence (IPV) and child maltreatment co-occurred in 19.6% of psychological abuse (p < .001) and 22.5% of physical abuse cases (p < .001). Parents exposed to IPV was the risk factor most likely to predict an increased risk for both psychological abuse (OR 4.01, CI 3.41–4.72; p < .001), and physical abuse (OR 2.19, CI 1.81–2.64; p < .001). Approving of hair-pulling or pinching the child (i.e., using corporal punishment) was most likely to predict an increased risk of physical abuse (OR 13.70, CI 11.69–16.06; p < .001).

Conclusions: The findings emphasize the importance of preventing all forms of child maltreatment by identifying families at risk and supporting parenthood according to families' needs.

Corporal punishment and early childhood development in 49 low- and middle-income countries.

Cuartas, J. (2021). Corporal punishment and early childhood development in 49 low- and middle-income countries. Child Abuse & Neglect, 120, 105205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105205

Objective: To systematically assess the association between corporal punishment and young children's development in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

Method: Data for 69 population-based surveys from the Multiple Indicators Cluster Survey (MICS) were combined. The sample included 131,164 children aged 36–59 months living in 49 LMICs. The surveys included information about children's developmental status and exposure to corporal punishment in the prior month. Logistic models, random-effects meta-analysis, and moderation analysis were used to obtain pooled estimates and assess the extent to which the association between corporal punishment and child developmental outcomes varied across countries.

Results: On average, children exposed to corporal punishment were about 24% (β = 0.76, 95% CI 0.72–0.80) less likely to be developmentally on track than children who were not exposed to corporal punishment. Challenges in social-emotional development may drive the association between child development and corporal punishment. Corporal punishment was not associated with any positive developmental outcome in any country. There was minor heterogeneity in the estimated associations, which was not explained by the extent to which corporal punishment was normative within countries.

Conclusions: All forms of corporal punishment – including spanking – are likely to be harmful to young children's development and wellbeing. Public education, legal prohibition of corporal punishment, and other efforts are needed to protect children from corporal punishment and promote their wellbeing, health, and development.

How can I feel safe at home? Adolescents’ experiences of family violence in Ghana.

Addae, E. A., & Tang, L. (2021). How can I feel safe at home? Adolescents’ experiences of family violence in Ghana. Frontiers in Public Health, 9, 672061. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.672061

Despite the implementation of various national legal frameworks and global policies such as the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child to combat violence against young people, family violence against young people is prevalent, especially in WHO African region. Although, research on child maltreatment, specifically, for young children has received considerable attention in Ghana recently, there is little research on adolescents' experiences of such family violence. In this paper, we report the experiences and perceptions of adolescents with respect to family violence they had suffered or witnessed, and analyze the socio-ecological factors and power dynamics at home that contribute to such violence. The study employs a qualitative approach and the data comprise focus group discussion with 56 adolescents from 14 schools in seven districts of Ghana. The findings show that several adolescents in Ghana feel unsafe at home. They experience physical, psychological, and sexual violence as well as exposure to intimate partner violence, exploitation, and neglect. These violent acts were severe, with dire consequences such as permanent impairment and suicide. Perpetrators include all types of carers. The violent acts are often surreptitious and poly-victimization is common. The results also reveal that three main socio-ecological factors perpetuate and legitimize family violence: patriarchy, the normalization of corporal punishment as a method of child discipline, and superstitious beliefs about health. In general, carers demonstrate their superiority and control over the adolescents in an authoritarian manner, thereby, making the adolescents powerless. Implications of the study for policy and practice are discussed.

Eavesdropping on the family: A pilot investigation of corporal punishment in the home.

Holden, G. W., Williamson, P. A., & Holland, G. W. O. (2014). Eavesdropping on the family: A pilot investigation of corporal punishment in the home. Journal of Family Psychology, 28(3), 401-406. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036370

This study tested the feasibility of using audio recorders to collect novel information about family interactions. Research into corporal punishment (CP) has relied, almost exclusively, on self-report data; audio recordings have the promise of revealing new insights into the use and immediate consequences of CP. So we could hear how parents respond to child conflicts, 33 mothers wore digital audio recorders for up to 6 evenings. We identified a total of 41 CP incidents, in 15 families and involving 22 parent-child dyads. These incidents were evaluated on 6 guidelines culled from the writings of CP advocates. The results indicated, contrary to advice, CP was not being used in line with 3 of the 6 recommendations and for 2 others, the results were equivocal. The last recommendation could not be assessed with audio. Latency analyses revealed children, after being hit, were misbehaving again within 10 minutes after 73% of the incidents. Mothers' self reports about whether they used CP were found to correspond to the audio data in 81% of the cases. Among the mothers who were hitting, CP occurred at a much higher rate than the literature indicates. These results should be viewed as preliminary because of the small sample of families and the even smaller number of families who used CP. Nevertheless, this pilot study demonstrates that audio recording naturally occurring momentary processes in the family is a viable method for collecting new data to address important questions about family interactions.

Spanking in the home and children’s subsequent aggression toward kindergarten peers.

Strassberg, Z., Dodge, K., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. (1994). Spanking in the home and children’s subsequent aggression toward kindergarten peers. Development and Psychopathology, 6(3), 445-461. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400006040

Although spanking of children is almost universal in U.S. society, its effects are not well understood. We examined the longitudinal relation between parental spanking and other physical punishment of preschool children and children's aggressive behavior toward peers later in kindergarten. A total of 273 boys and girls from diverse backgrounds served as subjects. The findings were consistent with a socialization model in which higher levels of severity in parental punishment practices are associated with higher levels of children's subsequent aggression toward peers. Findings indicated that children who had been spanked evidenced levels of aggression that were higher than those who had not been spanked, and children who had been the objects of violent discipline became the most aggressive of all groups. Patterns were qualified by the sexes of the parent and child and subtypes of child aggression (reactive, bullying, and instrumental). The findings suggest that in spite of parents' goals, spanking fails to promote prosocial development and, instead, is associated with higher rates of aggression toward peers.

Impact of intimate partner violence on parenting and children's externalizing behaviors: Transactional processes over time.

Chung, G., Jensen, T. M., Parisi, A., Macy, R. J., & Lanier, P. (2021). Impact of intimate partner violence on parenting and children's externalizing behaviors: Transactional processes over time. Violence Against Women, 27(14), 2576-2599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801220985125

This study used longitudinal data to examine the transactional associations between mothers' spanking and mother-child relationship quality with children's externalizing behaviors in the context of intimate partner violence (IPV). Data came from a sample of 1,152 low-income mothers with children age 10-14 years. Results showed that past-year IPV triggered transactional associations by increasing children's externalizing behaviors which, in turn, increased spanking and subsequently more externalizing behaviors. Transactional associations were also found for relationship quality. All outcomes used were mothers-reported except relationship quality. Implications for practice include the importance of the mother-child dyad and their reciprocal processes in assessment and treatment.

Physical punishment and child outcomes: A narrative review of prospective studies.

Heilmann, A., Mehay, A., Watt, R. G., Kelly, Y., Durrant, J. E., Van Turnhout, J., & Gershoff, E. T. (2021). Physical punishment and child outcomes: A narrative review of prospective studies. Lancet, 398(10297), 355-364. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(21)00582-1

Physical punishment is increasingly viewed as a form of violence that harms children. This narrative review summarises the findings of 69 prospective longitudinal studies to inform practitioners and policy makers about physical punishment's outcomes. Our review identified seven key themes. First, physical punishment consistently predicts increases in child behaviour problems over time. Second, physical punishment is not associated with positive outcomes over time. Third, physical punishment increases the risk of involvement with child protective services. Fourth, the only evidence of children eliciting physical punishment is for externalising behaviour. Fifth, physical punishment predicts worsening behaviour over time in quasi-experimental studies. Sixth, associations between physical punishment and detrimental child outcomes are robust across child and parent characteristics. Finally, there is some evidence of a dose-response relationship. The consistency of these findings indicates that physical punishment is harmful to children and that policy remedies are warranted.

The role of maternal trauma and discipline types in emotional processing among Syrian refugee children.

Peltonen, K., Gredebäck, G., Pollak, S. D., Lindskog, M., & Hall, J. (2022). The role of maternal trauma and discipline types in emotional processing among Syrian refugee children. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-022-01962-3

Stressful experiences in armed conflict incur intergenerational effects through parental behaviors with their children. A recent study reported that among Syrian refugee families, mothers’ (but not fathers’) post-traumatic stress (PTS) impacted children’s emotional processing. In this study, we aim to shed further light on this phenomenon by analyzing how the parenting practices in the context of post-traumatic stress confers protection or risk for children’s emotional processing. Participants were 6–18-year-old children (n = 212) and their mothers (n = 94), who fled from Syria and were residing in Turkish communities. We used the computer-based emotional processing task including photos of facial movements typically associated with different emotions to measure children’s capacity for emotional processing. Mothers reported their PTS and the discipline types they use, as well as the contextual factors related to their refugee background. Linear mixed effect models were constructed first, to find out the discipline types that are most strongly associated with emotional processing of the child, and second, to examine whether these discipline types moderate the effect of maternal PTS on children's emotional processing. Finally, generalized linear models were constructed to examine which contextual factors are associated with the use of these discipline types by mothers. We found that spanking as a discipline type was associated with poorer child emotional processing, whereas withholding of media access was associated with better emotional processing. Younger and less religious mothers were more prone to use spanking. The study underlines the need for parenting programs alongside with efforts to address mental health issues among mothers living under armed conflict.

Corporal punishment and child development in low- and- and middle-income countries: Progress, challenges, and directions.

Cuartas, J. (2022). Corporal punishment and child development in low- and middle-income countries: Progress, challenges, and directions. Child Psychiatry & Human Development. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-022-01362-3

Most studies and reviews of studies on the developmental consequences of corporal punishment have focused on samples from the U.S. and other high-income countries. This study conducted a rapid review of the literature on the associations between corporal punishment and children's cognitive and social-emotional development in low- and- middle-income countries (LMICs). Information from more than 42 studies of children younger than 18 years living in 64 LMICs was reviewed. Overall, the reviewed studies show associations between corporal punishment and negative cognitive and social-emotional outcomes, and there is no evidence that corporal punishment may relate to any positive developmental outcome in LMICs. Yet, issues of internal and external validity are common in the literature. The current evidence indicates that corporal punishment might increase the risk of detrimental child outcomes in LMICs, but further research with stronger methodological designs including samples from multiple settings is warranted.

The association between spanking and physical abuse of young children in 56 low- and middle-income countries.

Ma., J., Grogan-Kaylor, A. C., Pace, G. T., Ward, K. P., & Lee, S. J. (2022). The association between spanking and physical abuse of young children in 56 low- and middle-income countries. Child Abuse & Neglect, 129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105662

Background: Nearly one third of children under five in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) experience spanking. Studies from North America suggest that spanking is associated with heightened risk of physical abuse. However, the link between spanking and physical abuse in the international context remains understudied.

Objective: To examine the association between caregivers' spanking and physical abuse of young children in LMICs, and to estimate the extent to which physical abuse might be reduced if spanking were eliminated.

Participants: We used nationally representative data from 156,166 1- to 4-year-old children in 56 LMICs from the fourth and fifth rounds of UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys.

Methods: A nationally weighted multilevel logistic regression model examined the association between spanking and physical abuse. We calculated predicted probabilities of physical abuse, which we present using natural frequencies.

Results: Spanking was associated with higher odds of physical abuse (OR = 5.74, p < .001). The predicted probability of physical abuse decreased by 14% comparing children who were spanked (22%) and who were not spanked (8%). When our estimates were translated to a hypothetical sample of 100 children using a natural frequency approach, 32 children were spanked; of those, seven experienced physical abuse. The elimination of spanking would result in four fewer children who were exposed to physical abuse. In relation to the population of abused children, estimates suggest that physical abuse could reduce by up to 33% if spanking were eliminated.

Conclusions: Results support the UN Sustainable Development Goals Target 16.2 that calls for eliminating all forms of violence against children. Child welfare advocates should discourage caregivers from using spanking, in order to prevent physical abuse.

Maternal use of corporal punishment and behavior problems in early childhood: A sibling comparison analysis.

Anderson, K. L., & Goodnight, J. A. (2022). Maternal use of corporal punishment and behavior problems in early childhood: A sibling comparison analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 129, e105679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105679

Background: Previous research demonstrates that there are environmental and genetic factors associated with the use of corporal punishment (CP) and children's behavior problems. Thus, it is difficult to disentangle whether CP has a causal effect on children's developmental outcomes.

Objective: This study explored the relationship between maternal use of CP at ages 3-4 years and symptoms of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems between the ages of 6 and 9 years using a sibling comparison design. In doing so, we were able to control for shared environmental factors and partially control for genetic factors that could explain the relationship between CP and behavior problems.

Methods: This study analyzed data from 11,506 children from the United States. We used generalized linear models to assess the relationship between the use of CP and behavior problems among biological siblings raised in the same home.

Results: At the population level, CP was significantly associated with the development of internalizing behavior problems (β = 0.134, SE = 0.03, p < .001). When comparing siblings, this relationship was no longer significant. In contrast, CP was significantly associated with externalizing behavior problems at both the population (β=0.233, SE=0.02, p < .001) and sibling comparison level (β=0.107, SE=0.03, p < .001).

Conclusion: We did not find evidence to suggest that the association between CP and externalizing behavior problems is due to environmental and genetic factors exclusively. Corroborating previous research, these results suggest that CP may increase the likelihood of externalizing behavior problems.

Physical punishment, physical abuse, and child behavior problems in South Korea.

Ma, J., Han, Y., & Kang, H. R. (2022). Physical punishment, physical abuse, and child behavior problems in South Korea. Child Abuse & Neglect, 123, e105385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105385

Background: Prior literature has demonstrated the associations of parental physical punishment with child behavior problems and increased risk of physical abuse. In South Korea, physical punishment is a common parenting practice. In 2021, legislative reforms eliminated legal grounds for parental physical punishment in South Korea. However, research on physical punishment, physical abuse, and child behavior problems in the Korean context is scarce.

Objective: This study examined whether physical punishment and physical abuse have unique associations with child behavior problems and whether physical punishment is associated with increased exposure to physical abuse.

Participants and setting: Data came from the 2010 Korean Child and Youth Panel Survey (KCYPS), a nationally representative sample of South Korean children who attended 1st grade in 2010. Our analyses were based on three waves of the KCYPS (N = 2,180).

Methods: We employed fixed-effects regression to examine the associations of physical punishment and physical abuse with child behavior problems and the association of physical punishment with physical abuse after controlling for time-invariant characteristics.

Results: Exposure to physical punishment and physical abuse was associated with higher levels of aggression, depression, and lower levels of academic behavior regulation. Physical punishment was associated with increased risk of physical abuse.

Conclusions: Our findings suggest that physical punishment is a risk for child behavior problems and physical abuse in South Korea. Child maltreatment prevention efforts should focus on shifting favorable social norms around physical punishment and promoting non-physical disciplinary practices.

Spanking and children's social competence: Evidence from a US kindergarten cohort study.

Kang, J. (2022). Spanking and children’s social competence: Evidence from a US kindergarten cohort study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 132, e105817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105817

Background: Spanking is a risk factor for children's social competency. However, establishing causality is a challenge, given selection bias in samples and the possibility of confounding the harms of excessive spanking with the effects of infrequent spanking.

Objective: This study addressed these causality issues to strengthen the causal estimates of the links between spanking and children's social competency.

Participants and setting: The study used longitudinal US kindergarten cohort data from children aged 5 to 7.

Methods: The study used matching and lagged dependent variables to mitigate selection bias associated with lifetime (Ns = 17,171-17,537) and recent (Ns = 10,393-10,724) incidence of spanking. Cases in which spanking frequency exceeded two times a week were excluded. Sample sizes are provided in ranges due to the variations across multiple imputed samples.

Results: Lifetime experience of spanking by age 5 was associated with higher externalizing behaviors at ages 6 and 7, and with lower self-control and interpersonal skills at age 6. A recent incidence of spanking at age 5 was associated with higher externalizing behaviors, lower self-control, and lower interpersonal skills at ages 6 and 7. These results remain significant after cases of frequent spanking were excluded.

Conclusion: The results support the argument that spanking harms children's social development.

An examination of parents' adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) history and reported spanking of their child: Informing child maltreatment prevention efforts.

Afifi, T. O., Salmon, S., Stewart-Tufescu, A. & Tailliue, T. (2022). An examination of parents’ adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) history and reported spanking of their child: Informing child maltreatment prevention efforts. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(17), 10580. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710580

The current evidence indicates that spanking is harmful to children's health and development and should never be used by parents or other caregivers. However, the critical factors that inform effective spanking prevention strategies are still not well understood. The objective of the current study was to determine if a parent's own adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) history was associated with increased likelihood of reporting their child being spanked at age 10 or younger. Data were drawn from the Well-Being and Experiences Study (the WE Study), a community survey of parents and adolescents from 2017-2018 (N = 1000) from Canada. The results indicated that a parent's own history of physical abuse, emotional abuse, spanking, and household mental illness in childhood were associated with an increased likelihood that their child would have been spanked. These findings indicate that a parent's ACEs history may be related to how their own child is parented and identify families who may be more likely to rely on spanking. Preventing physical punishment is necessary for healthy child development, reducing the risk of further violence, and upholding children's rights to protection. Parent's ACEs history may be an important factor to consider when developing and implementing child maltreatment prevention efforts.

Spanking and corporal punishment parenting practices and child development: A systematic review.

Avezum, M. D. M. de M., Altafim, E. R. P., & Linhares, M. B. M. (2023). Spanking and corporal punishment parenting practices and child development: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(5), 3094-3111. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221124243

Violence against children is a significant problem, particularly during early childhood development. Spanking and other forms of corporal punishment in child-rearing have been used by families worldwide to correct children's unwanted behaviors. Despite previous studies focusing on the negative consequences of these parental practices, open questions remain. The present study aimed to systematically review the empirical studies published in scientific literature that examined the associations between parenting practices of spanking and corporal punishment of mothers and their children's behaviors and development in early childhood. Search was performed in PubMed, APA PsycNet, Web of Science, SciELO, and LILACS databases using the combination of the following keywords: ((spank OR physical punishment OR physical abuse OR physical maltreatment OR corporal punishment) AND (parenting)) AND (child* development OR child* behavior). The inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied and 34 articles were selected for review. The inclusion criteria were the following: studies that evaluated associations between maternal spanking or corporal punishment practices and behaviors or development of 0-to-6-year-old children; quantitative studies; studies published in English, Spanish, or Portuguese language. The results showed that in 94% of the studies, there were significant associations between maternal spanking and corporal punishment with deteriorated child behavior and development, concurrently or later. In addition, maternal physical practices also acted as mediators or moderator variables in models that explained behavioral and developmental problems in early childhood.

Associations between lifetime spanking/slapping and adolescent physical and mental health and behavioral outcomes.

Fortier, J., Stewart-Tufescu, A., Salmon, S., MacMillan, H. L., Gonzalez, A., Kimber, M., Duncan, L., Tailliue, T., Davila, Garces, I., Struck, S., & Afifi, T. O. (2021). Associations between lifetime spanking/slapping and adolescent physical and mental health and behavioral outcomes. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 67(4), 281-289. https://doi.org/10.1177/07067437211000632

Background: Many parents use physical forms of punishment, including spanking to correct perceived misbehavior. While some authors suggest spanking/slapping is a distinct and “milder” form of physical punishment, parents’ use of spanking is consistently associated with poor outcomes for their children. However, less is known about the relationship between spanking/slapping and health and behavioral outcomes in adolescence independent of other childhood adversities.

Objective: The objectives of this study were to examine the associations between lifetime experiences of spanking on the bottom and/or slapping on the hand and 3 adolescent outcomes: (a) mental health disorders, (b) physical health conditions, and (c) defiant behaviors, after adjusting for other types of childhood adversities and child maltreatment.

Methods: Cross-sectional data from the provincially representative 2014 Ontario Child Health Study (N = 6,537 dwellings, response rate = 50.8%) were used. The current study focused on one selected child aged 14 to 17 years within a household (n = 1,883) with data collected from the adolescent and the parent/caregiver. Logistic regression models were used to identify associations with lifetime experiences of spanking/slapping 3 or more times (vs. 0 to 2 times).

Results: Lifetime spanking/slapping was independently associated with increased odds of mental health disorders, physical health conditions, and defiant behaviors in adolescence after adjusting for childhood adversities and child maltreatment (unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios ranging from 1.29 to 2.19).

Conclusion: These findings suggest that lifetime spanking/slapping is uniquely associated with harmful mental, physical, and behavioral outcomes in adolescence, and efforts should focus on its prevention.

Harsh physical discipline and externalizing behaviors in children: A systematic review.

Wiggers, M., & Paas, F. (2022). Harsh physical discipline and externalizing behaviors in children: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(21), 14385. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192114385

There is growing debate in the parenting literature as to whether using physical punishment to discipline children is an effective strategy or leads to the development of aggressive behaviors and other antisocial attributes. The aim of the current literature review is to examine the association between harsh physical discipline and the development of externalizing behaviors in children, as well as the suggested moderators of this relationship. Secondly, the findings regarding the effects of harsh physical discipline on children's educational outcomes are reviewed. Articles were selected from relevant databases while maintaining an inclusion and exclusion criteria, with a total of 22 articles included in this review. Strong associations between parental corporal punishment and a range of child behaviors were indicated by the literature, and cultural normativeness was implicated as a moderator of these effects. Results regarding the role of parental warmth as a moderator did not provide a firm conclusion. Finally, the findings suggest that when a child is subjected to physical discipline in the home, their life at school may be adversely affected by impaired cognitive performance, peer isolation, and behavioral problems. The primary limitation of the studies reviewed is the use of self-report data and correlational analyses, ruling out the possibility of inferring causal relations. Nonetheless, the results indicate the necessity of encouraging parents and caregivers to avoid physical punishment as a disciplinary tactic while providing them with the tools to explore alternative practices.

Corporal punishment bans and adolescent suicide rates: An international ecological study.

Cramm, L., Elgar, F. J., & Pickett, W. (2023). Corporal punishment bans and adolescent suicide rates: An international ecological study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 137, e106022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106022

Background: Exposure to corporal punishment during childhood is associated with suicidal behaviors during adolescence. To date, the protective effects of national policies governing the use of corporal punishment have rarely been studied for adolescent suicide outcomes.

Objective: To investigate contemporaneous and lagged associations between national legislation banning corporal punishment and adolescent suicide rates.

Participants and setting: We used population-level administrative and mortality data from 97 countries spanning the years 1950 to 2017.

Methods: Negative binomial models were used to investigate the relationship between the existence of official corporal punishment bans in countries and national adolescent suicide mortality rates and the potential time lag between the enactment of such bans and reductions in adolescent suicide rates.

Results: National policies that permitted corporal punishment in all settings (homes, schools, daycares, and alternative care) were associated with a higher relative risk (RR) for suicide in females aged 15-19 (RR = 2.07, p = .03), as were policies allowing corporal punishment in schools specifically (RR = 2.01, p = .02). Partial bans of corporal punishment and bans of school corporal punishment showed lagged effects on suicide rates which peaked after 12 years for females aged 15-19 and after 13 years for males aged 15-19.

Conclusion: Study findings add to a body of evidence that suggests that official policies banning corporal punishment may promote adolescent health and well-being. The benefits of such policies in terms of reduced risk for adolescent suicide appear to peak approximately 12 to 13 years after enactment of the legislation.

Heterogeneous effects of spanking on child protective services involvement in early childhood: A propensity score stratification analysis.

Ma, J., & Han, Y. (2023). Heterogenous effects of spanking on child protective services involvement in early childhood: A propensity score stratification analysis. Child and Youth Services Review, 148, e106901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.106901

Background: Extant literature has primarily employed linear models to estimate the average effect of spanking on children. Less is known about child and parent characteristics that may predict differential risks of children’s exposure to spanking (i.e., pre-treatment heterogeneity) and the effect of spanking on child outcomes that may differ by the propensity for spanking (i.e., post-treatment heterogeneity).

Objective: The present study examines pre- and post-treatment heterogeneity in the association between maternal spanking at child age 3 and subsequent household Child Protective Services (CPS) involvement that were reported by mothers between child ages 3 to 5.

Methods: The sample consisted of 2,422 families from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a birth cohort study that oversampled children born to unmarried families. A propensity score stratification analysis procedure examined pre- and post-treatment heterogeneity in the association between spanking and subsequent household CPS involvement. Children were stratified into three strata depending on their propensity for experiencing spanking. Subsequently, the association between spanking and household CPS involvement was examined for each stratum.

Results: Disadvantaged socio-economic characteristics, negative psychosocial conditions of the mother, and dysregulated temperament of the child were associated with elevated risk of spanking. The odds of subsequent household CPS involvement increased by 2.4 times (β = 0.869, p <.01) for children in the stratum with the lowest propensity for experiencing spanking.

Conclusion: Results emphasize the importance of promoting alternative disciplinary strategies to families who would be considered low-risk before they may come into contact with the child welfare system.

Spanking and executive functioning in US children: A longitudinal analysis on a matched sample.

Kang, J., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2023). Spanking and executive functioning in US children: A longitudinal analysis on a matched sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 146, e106474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106474

Background: Spanking has been linked to multiple maladaptive child outcomes. However, previous research linking spanking with children's executive function skills (EFs; inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory) is limited by research designs that do not adequately address selection bias concerns, wherein the participant characteristics potentially differ between those who are spanked versus not spanked.

Objective: Using a representative sample of US children aged 5 to 6, this study strengthened the evidence for causal estimates on the link between spanking and subsequent EFs with a matched-group design. Low-frequency spanking and potential moderators (child gender, parent race/ethnicity, parental warmth) were tested to determine if they moderated the link between spanking and EFs.

Participants: Data were drawn from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-11 (Ns = 12,750-12,830). To mitigate selection bias, entropy-balanced matching was utilized to match spanked versus not-spanked groups, and lagged dependent variable regression analyses were conducted on the matched sample to predict EFs by spanking group status.

Results: After matching, spanking at age 5 was associated with lower inhibitory control and lower cognitive flexibility at age 6, but was not significantly predictive of later working memory. The association with inhibitory control was observed even for low frequency spanking. However, no evidence of moderation by child gender, parent race/ethnicity, and parental warmth was identified.

Conclusion: This study provides evidence that spanking is associated with lower executive functioning in children, although the associations varied by different EF domains.

Corporal punishment and elevated neural response to threat in children.

Cuartas, J., Weissman, D. G., Sheridan, M. A., Lengua, L., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2021). Corporal punishment and elevated neural response to threat in children. Child Development, 92(3), 821-832. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13565

Spanking remains common around the world, despite evidence linking corporal punishment to detrimental child outcomes. This study tested whether children (Mage = 11.60) who were spanked (N = 40) exhibited altered neural function in response to stimuli that suggest the presence of an environmental threat compared to children who were not spanked (N = 107). Children who were spanked exhibited greater activation in multiple regions of the medial and lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC), including dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, dorsomedial PFC, bilateral frontal pole, and left middle frontal gyrus in response to fearful relative to neutral faces compared to children who were not spanked. These findings suggest that spanking may alter neural responses to environmental threats in a manner similar to more severe forms of maltreatment.

Bidirectional associations between parenting behavior and child callous-unemotional traits: Does parental depression moderate this link?

Childs, A. W., Fite, P. J., Moore, T. M., Lochman, J. E., & Pardini, D. A. (2014). Bidirectional associations between parenting behavior and child callous-unemotional traits: Does parental depression moderate this link? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42, 1141-1151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9856-y

The current study longitudinally examined bidirectional associations between callous-unemotional (CU) traits and parenting dimensions. This study extended the literature by examining whether parental depression moderated these relations in a pre-adolescent sample. Proposed relations were examined using a longitudinal sample of 120 aggressive children (59.6 % male) who were in the 4th grade (M = 10.56 years, SD = 0.56) at baseline and were followed annually over 4 years. A series of generalized estimating equation (GEE) models were used to examine proposed relations. At the first order level, corporal punishment (p < . 001) and poor supervision/monitoring predicted increases in CU traits (p=0.03) however, the inverse relations were not found. Importantly, parental depression moderated the link between corporal punishment and CU traits. Specifically, at high levels of depression, corporal punishment was predictive of increases in CU traits, but was unrelated to CU traits at low levels of depression. These findings aid in our understanding of the link between corporal punishment and CU traits by highlighting conditions under which certain parenting behaviors have an impact on CU traits, which in turn, may have important intervention implications. Further clinical implications, limitations and future directions are discussed.

Spanking and subsequent behavioral problems in toddlers: A propensity score-matched, prospective study in Japan.

Okuzono, S., Fujiwara, T., Kato, T., & Kawachi, I. (2017). Spanking and subsequent behavioral problems in toddlers: A propensity score-matched, prospective study in Japan. Child Abuse & Neglect, 69, 62-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.04.002

Harsh or frequent spanking in early childhood is an established risk factor for later childhood behavioral problems as well as mental disorder in adulthood in Western societies. However, few studies have been conducted in Asian populations, where corporal punishment is relatively accepted. Moreover, the impacts of occasional spanking on subsequent behavioral problems remain uncertain. This study sought to investigate prospectively the association between the frequency of spanking of toddlers and later behavioral problems in Japanese children using national birth cohort data. We used data from the Longitudinal Survey of Newborns in the 21st Century, a population-based birth cohort data set collected by the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare (N=29,182). Frequency of spanking ("never", "sometimes" and "always") and child behavioral problems were assessed via a caregiver questionnaire when the child was 3.5 years old and again at 5.5 years. Propensity score matching was used to examine the association between frequency of spanking and child behavioral problems, adjusting for parental socioeconomic status, child temperament and parenting behaviors. Compared to children who were never spanked, occasional spanking ("sometimes") showed a higher number of behavioral problems (on a 6-point scale) (coefficient: 0.11, 95% CI: 0.07-0.15), and frequent spanking ("always") showed an even larger number of behavioral problems compared with "sometimes" (coefficient: 0.08, 95% CI:0.01-0.16). Spanking of any self-reported frequency was associated with an increased risk for later behavioral problems in children.

Corporal punishment: Mother's disciplinary behavior and child's psychological profile in Alexandria, Egypt.

Abolfotouh, M. A., El-Bourgy, M. D., Seif El Din, A. G., & Mehanna, A. A. (2009). Corporal punishment: Mother’s disciplinary behavior and child’s psychological profile in Alexandria, Egypt. Journal of Forensic Nursing, 5(1), 5-17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-3938.2009.01025.x

Although all professionals oppose abusive physical punishment, nonabusive physical punishment is still controversial. The aim of the present study was (i) to determine parents' behavior regarding the discipline of their children using corporal punishment or other alternative disciplinary methods, (ii) to identify the different associated factors for corporal punishment, and (iii) to determine the association between exposure of the child to corporal punishment and his or her psychosocial well-being. A representative sample of 400 fifth-grade primary school children and their mothers were subjected to a cross-sectional survey. Mothers were subjected to a questionnaire to assess their behavior on corporal punishment and other disciplinary methods. The children were subjected to Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory to assess their self-esteem, and a questionnaire to assess their relationship with others. About three-quarter of children (76.3%) were corporally punished, and about half of them (46.2%) were punished on sites other than the extremities or buttocks. In 59.3% of them the frequency of the punishment ranged from once or twice/week to more than once/day, and it left marks in about 20%. Other disciplinary methods used by mothers were yelling/insulting (43.5%), taking away a toy or privilege (39.3%), discussing/explaining (9.5%), and time out (2.8%). The significant predictors of mothers' use of corporal punishment were male gender of the child (p < 0.01), rural origin of the father (p=0.02), the mother's bad history of rearing experience (p < 0.01), and poor interparental relationship (p=0.02). The relation between corporal punishment of children and their self-esteem was not statistically significant; however, corporally punished children scored lower on their relationship with others than noncorporally punished ones (Z=2.60, p < 0.05). Corporal punishment is a widespread disciplinary method in Alexandria. The use of corporal punishment could have adverse effects on the child especially on his or her relationship with others. Planning an awareness-raising educational program for current and expectant parents is recommended, to promote positive nonviolent methods of child rearing, via the media and campaigns, and encouragement of political, community, and religious leaders; medical personnel; journalists; and sports and entertainment figures to share in these campaigns.

Household economic hardship as a moderator of the associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior problems.

Lee, S. J., Pace, G. T., Ward, K. P., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Ma, J. (2020). Household economic hardship as a moderator of the associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior problems. Child Abuse & Neglect, 107, e104573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104573

Background: Spanking is associated with detrimental outcomes for young children. Research shows that spanking is more commonly used in low-income households.

Objective: To examine whether economic hardship, measured by household income-to-poverty ratio at the time of the child's birth, moderated the longitudinal associations between maternal spanking and child externalizing behavior problems during the first nine years of childhood.

Participants and setting: Mother-child pairs (N = 4,149) from a cohort study of urban families in 20 US cities.

Methods: Cross-lagged path models examined associations between maternal spanking and externalizing behavior when children were between the ages of 1 and 9. Multigroup analyses examined whether income-to-poverty ratio moderated these associations.

Results: Bivariate analyses showed that income-to-poverty ratio was associated with child externalizing behavior problems at each time point; income-to-poverty ratio was associated with maternal spanking at age 3 only. Longitudinal path model results indicated that, for low- and middle-income groups, maternal spanking at each age had significant associations with child externalizing behavior at each subsequent age. For the high-income group, maternal spanking at age 1 and age 3 had significant associations with child externalizing behavior at each subsequent age; however, spanking at age 5 was not associated with child externalizing behavior at age 9.

Conclusion: Spanking is disadvantageous for children at all income levels, with more persistent effects in low- and middle-income families. For higher-income families, the associations of maternal spanking with child externalizing behavior problems may be attenuated as child age increases. Regardless of income level, parents should be advised against spanking.

Temporal association of parental corporal punishment with violence in school and cyberbullying among adolescents.

Chen, J-K., Lin, L., Hong, J. S., & Wang, L-C. (2023). Temporal association of parental corporal punishment with violence in school and cyberbullying among adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 143, e106251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106251

Background and objective: Previous cross-sectional research suggested a link between parental corporal punishment, school violence, and cyberbullying among adolescents. However, their temporal relationships remain unclear. This study used longitudinal panel data to examine the temporal relationships between parental corporal punishment, adolescent school violence against peers and teachers, and cyberbullying perpetration.

Participants and setting: Seven hundred and two junior high school students from Taiwan participated.

Methods: A probability sample and two waves of longitudinal panel data collected a nine-month apart were analyzed. A self-administered questionnaire was used to collect students' self-reported information about their experiences of parental corporal punishment, perpetration of school violence against peers and teachers, and cyberbullying.

Results: Parental corporal punishment at Time 1 predicted violence against school peers, violence against teachers, and cyberbullying perpetration at Time 2; however, these three behaviors at Time 1 did not predict parental corporal punishment at Time 2. These findings applied to both sex groups, although the effects of parental corporal punishment on violence against teachers were slightly stronger for boys than girls.

Conclusion: Parental corporal punishment is a predictor rather than an outcome of adolescent school violence against peers and teachers and cyberbullying. Policies and interventions need to target parental corporal punishment to prevent adolescents from engaging in violence against peers and teachers and cyberbullying.

Corporal punishment is uniquely associated with a greater neural response to errors and blunted neural response to rewards in adolescence.

Burani, K., Brush, C. J., Spahr, C., Slavich, G. M., Meyer, A., & Hajak, G. (2023). Corporal punishment is unique associated with a greater neural response to errors and blunted neural response to rewards in adolescence. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 8(2), 210-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2022.09.004

Background: Although corporal punishment is a common form of punishment with known negative impacts on health and behavior, how such punishment affects neurocognitive systems is relatively unknown.

Methods: To address this issue, we examined how corporal punishment affected neural measures of error and reward processing in 149 adolescent boys and girls of ages 11 to 14 years (mean age [SD] = 11.02 [1.16]). Corporal punishment experienced over the lifetime was assessed using the Stress and Adversity Inventory. In addition, participants completed a flankers task and a reward task to measure the error-related negativity and reward positivity, respectively, as well as measures of anxiety and depressive symptoms.

Results: As hypothesized, participants who experienced lifetime corporal punishment reported more anxiety and depressive symptoms. Experiencing corporal punishment was also related to a larger error-related negativity and blunted reward positivity. Importantly, corporal punishment was independently related to a larger error-related negativity and a more blunted reward positivity beyond the impact of harsh parenting and lifetime stressors.

Conclusion: Corporal punishment appears to potentiate neural response to errors and decrease neural response to rewards, which could increase risk for anxiety and depressive symptoms.

Parental use of corporal punishment in Europe: Intersection between public health and policy.

duRivage, N., Keyes, K., Leray, E., Pez, O., Bitfoi, A., Koç, C., Goelitz, D., Kuijpers, R., Lesinskiene, S., Mihova, Z., Otten, R., Fermanian, C., & Kovess-Masfety, V. (2015). Parental use of corporal punishment in Europe: Intersection between Public Health and Policy. PLoS ONE, 10(2), e0118059. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118059

Studies have linked the use of corporal punishment of children to the development of mental health disorders. Despite the recommendation of international governing bodies for a complete ban of the practice, there is little European data available on the effects of corporal punishment on mental health and the influence of laws banning corporal punishment. Using data from the School Children Mental Health Europe survey, the objective of this cross-sectional study was to examine the prevalence and legal status of corporal punishment across six European countries and to evaluate the association between parental use of corporal punishment and children's mental health. The study found that odds of having parents who reported using occasional to frequent corporal punishment were 1.7 times higher in countries where its use is legal, controlling for socio-demographic factors. Children with parents who reported using corporal punishment had higher rates of both externalized and internalized mental health disorders.

Buffering effect of parental engagement on the relationship between corporal punishment and children's emotional/behavioral problems.

Tong, L., Shinohara, R., Sugisawa, Y., Tanaka, E., Watanabe, T., Koeda, T., & Name, T. (2015). Buffering effect of parental engagement on the relationship between corporal punishment and children’s emotional/behavioral problems. Pediatrics International, 57(3), 385-392. https://doi.org/10.1111/ped.12604

Background: Previous research has established links between corporal punishment and children's developmental problems, but few studies have investigated the moderating effect of positive parenting between corporal punishment and children's developmental difficulties in detail. This study investigated the buffering effect of parental engagement on the association between corporal punishment and children's emotional/behavioral problems.

Methods: The main caregivers completed the Evaluation of Environmental Stimulation Scale (EES), which is an evaluation of daily parenting behaviors, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), which evaluates children's developmental problems.

Results: Corporal punishment was associated with worse emotional and behavioral problems in children, whereas parental engagement in games or sports was associated with fewer emotional symptoms. Similarly, parental engagement in homework or housework significantly moderated the association between corporal punishment and children's behavioral problems.

Conclusion: Parental engagement positively moderated the association between parental corporal punishment and children's developmental difficulties. This association varied with child gender.

Harsh parenting during early childhood and child development.

Berthelon, M., Contreras, D., Kruger, D., & Palma, M. I. (2020). Harsh parenting during early childhood and child development. Economic & Human Biology, 36, e100831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2019.100831

We study the relationship between harsh parenting strategies, including psychological and physical aggressions that do not constitute abuse, on early childhood cognitive and socio-emotional development. We estimate a value-added model that controls for a rich set of child, mother, and family characteristics, from a nationally representative sample of Chilean children aged 52-83 months. We find harsh parenting is significantly associated with lower verbal skills (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test) of a magnitude of 0.06 standard deviations, and with increased behavioral problems (Child Behavior Check List), by 0.11 standard deviations, including internalization, externalization, and sleep problems. We also find that the more systematic (persistent) harsh parenting is, the stronger the association; the association is similar for boys and girls; reaches its peak at about 5 years of age; and it is stronger for children with less educated mothers.

Parental endorsement of spanking and children's internalizing and externalizing problems in African American and Hispanic families.

Coley, R. L., Kull, M. A., & Carrano, J. (2014). Parental endorsement of spanking and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems in African American and Hispanic families. Journal of Family Psychology, 28(1), 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035272

This study assessed prospective, bidirectional associations between maternal endorsement of spanking and children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems in low-income urban African American and Hispanic (N = 592) families drawn from the Three City Study. Children in sample families were followed from early childhood through middle childhood with 3 sets of interviews and assessments at ages 3, 4, and 9 years. Cross-lagged path analyses tested longitudinal bidirectional associations between parental endorsement of spanking and children's internalizing and externalizing problems, with multigroup comparisons employed to test group differences between race/ethnic groups. African American and Hispanic mothers showed similar endorsements of spanking. Results suggest that associations between spanking endorsement and child functioning were due primarily to parenting effects, with spanking predicting changes in children's behaviors, rather than child evocative effects, with limited evidence of child behaviors predicting changes in parental spanking. Maternal spanking endorsement predicted short-term decreases in children's internalizing problems in early childhood, but over the longer term spanking was associated with increased internalizing and externalizing problems for both African American and Hispanic children in middle childhood among economically disadvantaged families.

Spanking and children's externalizing behavior across the first decade of life: Evidence for transactional processes.

MacKenzie, M. J., Nicklas, E., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Waldfogel, J. (2015). Spanking and children’s externalizing behavior across the first decade of life: Evidence for transactional processes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 658-669. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0114-y

Despite a growing literature associating physical discipline with later child aggression, spanking remains a typical experience for American children. The directionality of the associations between aggression and spanking and their continuity over time has received less attention. This study examined the transactional associations between spanking and externalizing behavior across the first decade of life, examining not only how spanking relates to externalizing behavior leading up to the important transition to adolescence, but whether higher levels of externalizing lead to more spanking over time as well. We use data from the Fragile families and child well-being (FFCW) study to examine maternal spanking and children's behavior at ages 1, 3, 5, and 9 (N = 1,874; 48% girls). The FFCW is a longitudinal birth cohort study of children born between 1998 and 2000 in 20 medium to large US cities. A little over a quarter of this sample was spanked at age 1, and about half at age 3, 5, and 9. Estimates from a cross-lagged path model provided evidence of developmental continuity in both spanking and externalizing behavior, but results also highlighted important reciprocal processes taking hold early, with spanking influencing later externalizing behavior, which, in turn, predicted subsequent spanking. These bidirectional effects held across race/ethnicity and child's gender. The findings highlight the lasting effects of early spanking, both in influencing early child's behavior, and in affecting subsequent child's externalizing and parental spanking in a reciprocal manner. These amplifying transactional processes underscore the importance of early intervention before patterns may cascade across domains in the transition to adolescence.

Cultural norms for adult corporal punishment of children and societal rates of endorsement and use of violence.

Lansford, J. E., & Dodge, K. A. (2008). Cultural norms for adult corporal punishment of children and societal rates of endorsement and use of violence. Parenting: Science and Practice, 8(3), 257-270. https://doi.org/10.1080/15295190802204843

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis that societal rates of corporal punishment of children predict societal levels of violence, using "culture" as the unit of analysis.

DESIGN: Data were retrieved from the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample of anthropological records, which includes 186 cultural groups, to represent the world's 200 provinces based on diversity of language, economy, political organization, descent, and historical time. Independent coders rated the frequency and harshness of corporal punishment of children, inculcation of aggression in children, warfare, interpersonal violence among adults, and demographic, socioeconomic, and parenting covariates.

RESULTS: More frequent use of corporal punishment was related to higher rates of inculcation of aggression in children, warfare, and interpersonal violence. These relations held for inculcation of aggression in children and warfare after controlling for demographic, socioeconomic, and parenting confounds.

CONCLUSION: More frequent use of corporal punishment is related to higher prevalence of violence and endorsement of violence at a societal level. The findings are consistent with theories that adult violence becomes more prevalent in contexts in which corporal punishment is frequent, that the use of corporal punishment increases the probability that children will engage in violent behaviors during adulthood, and that violence in one social domain tends to influence behavior in other domains. If corporal punishment leads to higher levels of societal violence, then reducing parents' use of corporal punishment should lead to reductions in societal violence manifested in other ways.

Corporal punishment of adolescents by parents: A risk factor in the epidemiology of depression, suicide, alcohol abuse, child abuse, and wife beating.

Straus, M. A., & Kantor, G. K. (1994). Corporal punishment of adolescents by parents: A risk factor in the epidemiology of depression, suicide, alcohol abuse, child abuse, and wife beating. Adolescence, 29(115), 543-561. Abstract available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7832020/

Over 90% of parents of toddlers spank or use other forms of corporal punishment. Although the rate declines each year from about age five, this study of a large national sample of U.S. adults found that almost half recalled having been corporally punished during their teen years. This high prevalence indicates a need to investigate the possibility that corporal punishment puts adolescents at increased risk of developing mental health and social relationship problems later in life. The analysis, which controlled for a number of possible confounding risk factors such as low socioeconomic status, found that children who experienced corporal punishment in adolescence had an increased risk later in life of depressive symptoms, suicidal thoughts, alcohol abuse, physical abuse of children, and wife beating. The consistent association of corporal punishment with major adult problem behavior, together with the fact that at least half of all adolescents are victims of corporal punishment by their parents, indicates a need to replicate the study using longitudinal data. If the findings are confirmed, it suggests that a major step in primary prevention of violence and mental health problems can be achieved by a national effort to reduce or eliminate all use of corporal punishment.

Corporal punishment and child behavioral and cognitive outcomes through 5 years-of-age: Evidence from a contemporary urban birth cohort study.

MacKenzie, M. J., Nicklas, E., Waldfogel, J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2011). Corporal punishment and child behavioural and cognitive outcomes through 5 years of age: Evidence from a contemporary urban birth cohort study. Infant and Child Development, 21(1), 3-33. https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.758

This study examined the prevalence and determinants of spanking of children at 3 years-of-age, and the associations between spanking and externalizing behavior and receptive verbal ability at age 5. Overall, we find maternal spanking rates of 55.2% and paternal rates of 43.2% at age 3. Mothers facing greater stress and those who spanked earlier are more likely to spank at age 3, whereas those who report a supportive partner during pregnancy and those who were not U.S. born were less likely to spank. Mothers and fathers in communities where spanking was more normative were more likely to spank. Fathers were less likely to spank daughters at age 3. Frequent maternal spanking at age 3 was associated with externalizing behavior and receptive vocabulary at age 5, controlling for an array of ecological risks, earlier behavior, and verbal capacity. Taking advantage of the large and diverse sample we explored potential interactions and found no evidence that race, parental warmth, normativeness, or child gender moderated the association between spanking and externalizing or receptive vocabulary. These findings add to the literature on negative consequences associated with a widely endorsed parenting practice, and highlight the need for research that explores alternative effective discipline practices and addresses parent questions of what else they could, or even should, be doing.

Corporal punishment: Normative data and sociological and psychological correlates in a community college population.

Bryan, J. W., & Freed, F. W. (1982). Corporal punishment: Normative data and sociological and psychological correlates in a community college population. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 11, 77-87. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01834705

Community college students (N=170) were surveyed regarding the intensity and frequency of methods of corporal punishment they have received and the persons administering the punishment. Results indicate that corporal punishment is a normatively used method of behavioral management. Males reported receiving a greater amount of corporal punishment, especially from their fathers. Overall, those who received a high amount of corporal punishment reported lower grades and a significantly greater number of problems, such as aggression, delinquency, depression, and anxiety. These findings are cause for concern and intervention.

Children's experiences of corporal punishment: A qualitative study in an urban township of South Africa.

Breen, A., Daniels, K., & Tomlinson, M. (2015). Children’s experiences of corporal punishment: A qualitative study in an urban township of South Africa. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48, 131-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.04.022

Exposure to violence is a serious mental and public health issue. In particular, children exposed to violence are at risk for poor developmental outcomes and physical and mental health problems. One area that has been shown to increase the risk for poor outcomes is the use of corporal punishment as a discipline method. While researchers are starting to ask children directly about their experiences of violence, there is limited research with children about their perspectives on physical punishment, particularly in low-and middle-income countries (LMIC). This paper begins to address this gap by reporting on the spontaneous data that emerged during 24 qualitative interviews that were conducted with children, aged 8-12 in South Africa. The themes that emerged indicated that corporal punishment is an everyday experience, that it has negative emotional and behavioral consequences, and that it plays a role in how children resolve interpersonal conflicts. The study highlights the challenges for violence prevention interventions in under-resourced contexts.

Does community violence exposure moderate the associations between maternal spanking and early child behavior problems?

Ma, J., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Lee, S. J. (2020). Does community violence exposure moderate the associations between maternal spanking and early child behavior problems. Aggressive Behavior, 46(3), 210-219. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21882

A robust research literature links parental spanking with negative behavioral outcomes for children, however, it remains unclear whether conditions in the community may moderate the associations between spanking and behavior problems in early childhood. In the current study, we examined whether community violence exposure moderated the associations of maternal spanking with externalizing and internalizing behavior problems of young children. The sample used in this study was urban families and their children ages 3-5 (n = 2,472). We used fixed effects regression models, which yield stronger statistical control for baseline behavior problems, selection bias, and omitted variables bias. Mother's spanking was associated with elevated levels of both externalizing (β = .037, p < .001) and internalizing (β=.016, p < .001) behavior problems. Community violence exposure also predicted higher levels of externalizing (β=.071, p < .01) and internalizing (β=.043, p < .05) behavior problems. Community violence exposure did not moderate the associations between maternal spanking and behavior problems. Professionals working with families should promote the use of nonphysical disciplinary practices, regardless of the level of violence and crime in the community in which the family resides.

Early risk pathways to physical versus relational peer aggression: The interplay of externalizing behavior and corporal punishment varies by child sex.

Zulauf, C. A., Sokolovsky, A. W., Grabell, A. S., & Olson, S. L. (2018). Early risk pathways to physical versus relational peer aggression: The interplay of externalizing behavior and corporal punishment varies by child sex. Aggressive Behavior, 44(2), 209-220. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21744

Children who aggress against their peers may use physical or relational forms, yet little research has looked at early childhood risk factors and characteristics that uniquely predict high levels of relational versus physical aggression in preadolescence. Accordingly, the main aim of our study was to link early corporal punishment and externalizing behavior to children's physical and relational peer aggression during preadolescence and to examine how these pathways differed by sex. Participants were 193, 3-year-old boys (39%) and girls who were reassessed following the transition to kindergarten (5.5 years) and preadolescence (10.5 years). A series of autoregressive, cross-lagged path analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between child externalizing problems and corporal punishment at ages 3 and 5.5 years, and their association with physical and relational aggression at age 10.5. Multiple group analysis was used to determine whether pathways differed by sex. Three developmental pathways were identified: (i) direct associations between stable childhood externalizing problems and later physical aggression; (ii) a direct pathway from early corporal punishment to preadolescent relational and physical peer aggression; and (iii) an indirect pathway from early corporal punishment to later physical aggression via continuing externalizing problems in middle childhood. Child sex moderated the nature of these pathways, as well as the direction of association between risk and outcome variables. These data advance our understanding of the etiology of distinct forms of peer aggression and highlight the potential for more efficacious prevention and intervention efforts in the early childhood years.

Longitudinal associations of neighborhood collective efficacy and maternal corporal punishment with behavior problems in early childhood.

Ma, J., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2017). Longitudinal associations of neighborhood collective efficacy and maternal corporal punishment with behavior problems in early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 53(6), 1027–1041. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000308

Neighborhood and parenting influences on early behavioral outcomes are strongly dependent upon a child's stage of development. However, little research has jointly considered the longitudinal associations of neighborhood and parenting processes with behavior problems in early childhood. To address this limitation, this study explores the associations of neighborhood collective efficacy and maternal corporal punishment with the longitudinal patterns of early externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. The study sample consisted of 3,705 families from a nationally representative cohort study of urban families. Longitudinal multilevel models examined the associations of collective efficacy and corporal punishment with behavior problems at age 3, as well as with patterns of behavior problems between the ages 3 to 5. Interactions between the main predictors and child age tested whether neighborhood and parent relationships with child behavior varied over time. Mediation analysis examined whether neighborhood influences on child behavior were mediated by parenting. The models controlled for a comprehensive set of possible confounders at the child, parent, and neighborhood levels. Results indicate that both maternal corporal punishment and low neighborhood collective efficacy were significantly associated with increased behavior problems. The significant interaction between collective efficacy and child age with internalizing problems suggests that neighborhood influences on internalizing behavior were stronger for younger children. The indirect effect of low collective efficacy on behavior problems through corporal punishment was not significant. These findings highlight the importance of multilevel interventions that promote both neighborhood collective efficacy and nonphysical discipline in early childhood.

Race as a moderator of associations between spanking and child outcomes.

Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2016). Race as a moderator of associations between spanking and child outcomes. Family Relations, 65(3), 490-501. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12205

The cultural normativeness perspective argues that parenting practices such as spanking are more beneficial for children when they occur in cultural groups within which they are normative. Research on this issue in the United States has focused on race as a marker of culture, and findings have been mixed. The present study presents meta-analyses of five studies that reported effect sizes separately for White (n = 11,814) and Black (n = 3,065) American children (5 to 14 years of age). Mean weighted effect sizes for both groups indicated statistically significant associations with detrimental outcomes; they were not statistically significantly different from one another. Contrary to the cultural normativeness perspective, these results demonstrate that spanking is similarly associated with detrimental outcomes for White and Black children in the United States.

Parenting practices and associations with developmental delays among young children in Dominican Republic.

Uwemedimo, O. T., Howlader, A., & Pierret, G. (2017). Parenting practices and associations with development delays among young children in Dominican Republic. Annals of Global Health, 83(3-4), 568-576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2017.10.007

Background: According to the World Health Organization, >200 million children in low- and middle-income countries experience developmental delays. However, household structure and parenting practices have been minimally explored as potential correlates of developmental delay in low- and middle-income countries, despite potential as areas for intervention.

Objective: The objective of the study was to examine associations of developmental delays with use of World Health Organization-recommended parenting practices among a clinic-based cohort of children aged 6-60 months attending in La Romana, Dominican Republic.

Methods: This study was conducted among 74 caregiver-child pairs attending the growth-monitoring clinic at Hospital Francisco Gonzalvo in June 2015. The Malawi Developmental Assessment Tool was adapted and performed on each child to assess socioadaptive, fine motor, gross motor, and language development. The IMCI Household Level Survey Questionnaire was used to assess parenting practices. Fisher's exact test was used to determine associations significant at P < .05. Significant variables were then entered into a multivariable logistic regression.

Findings: Almost two-thirds of children had a delay in at least 1 developmental domain. Most caregivers used scolding (43.2%) or spanking (44%) for child discipline. Children who were disciplined by spanking and scolding were more likely to have language delay (P = .007) and socioadaptive delay (P = .077), respectively. On regression analysis, children with younger primary caregivers had 7 times higher odds of language delay (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 7.35, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.52-35.61) and 4 times greater odds of any delay (AOR: 4.72, 95% CI: 1.01-22.22). In addition, children punished by spanking had 5 times higher odds of having language delay (AOR: 5.04, 95% CI: 1.13-22.39).

Conclusion: Parenting practices such as harsh punishment and lack of positive parental reinforcement were found to have strong associations with language and socioadaptive delays. Likewise, delays were also more common among children with younger caregivers.

Reciprocal relations between harsh discipline and children's externalizing behavior in China: A 5-year longitudinal study.

Wang, M., & Liu, L. (2017). Reciprocal relations between harsh discipline and children’s externalizing behavior in China: A 5-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 89(1), 174-187. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12724

This research examined the overtime reciprocal relations between maternal and paternal harsh discipline and children's externalizing behavior. Seven hundred two father-mother dyads of children (6-9 years of age at baseline) completed measures of parental harsh discipline and children's externalizing behavior at five time points, 1 year apart. Autoregressive latent trajectory models revealed that maternal and paternal corporal punishment predicted subsequent children's externalizing behavior (parent-driven effects), whereas children's externalizing behavior predicted subsequent maternal and paternal psychological aggression (child-driven effects). The parent-driven effects became stronger, whereas the child-driven effects were equally strong across time. Furthermore, the parent-driven effects for corporal punishment were found for both boys and girls, whereas the child-driven effects for psychological aggression were found only for boys.

Self-reports of corporal punishment by Xhosa children from broken and intact families and their academic achievement.

Cherian, V. I. (1994). Self-reports of corporal punishment by Xhosa children from broken and intact families and their academic achievement. Psychological Reports, 74(3), 867-874. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1994.74.3.867

The association of corporal punishment reported by 1021 pupils (369 boys and 652 girls) and their academic achievement was investigated. The sample included 242 children whose parents were divorced or separated and 713 children whose parents were neither divorced nor separated. Subjects were between 13 and 17 years old, with a mean age of 15.6 yr. They were chosen at random from the Standard 7/Year 9 population of Transkei, South Africa. A questionnaire yielded recalled frequencies of parental punishment. Analysis of variance indicated a significant negative association between parental punishment and academic achievement.

A preliminary study of early childhood parenting and adult past month drug use risk in low-income African American women.

Frazier, T., & Sales, J. M. (2019). A preliminary study of early childhood parenting and adult past month drug use risk in low-income African American women. Addictive Behaviors, 97, 84-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.05.018

Purpose: This preliminary study was designed to assess the feasibility of examining early childhood parenting factors and their relationship with adult past month drug use among low-income African American women.

Methods: A cross-sectional survey of 156 low-income African American women was conducted. Measures included the childhood parental bonding scale, frequency of exposure to corporal punishment (CP) in childhood, The Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST) and The Differentiation of Self Scale. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to assess the relationship between the primary predictors, latent parental bonding and corporal punishment exposure, with past month drug use. The intermediary construct, emotional reactivity, was also included in the SEM model to test mechanisms of mediation.

Results: There was a significant main effect for maternal care on lower emotional reactivity patterns in adulthood. There was also a significant main effect for frequent CP on higher emotional reactivity patterns in adulthood. The relationship between both parenting measures and drug use were mediated by emotional reactivity.

Conclusion: Childhood maternal factors are a strong predictor of adult past month drug use, and this may be accounted for, in part, by the influence that parenting patterns in childhood have on adult emotional reactivity patterns. These observations should be examined in a longitudinal study to determine the stability of our observation that CP in childhood, even when controlling for positive maternal bonding patterns, influences emotional reactivity patterns that predispose an individual to negative coping strategies, such as drug use, in adulthood, among low-income African American women.

Measurement invariance and country difference in children's social skills development: Evidence from Japanese and Chinese samples.

Zhu, Z., Jiao, D., Li, X., Zhu, Y., Kim, C., Ajmal, A., Matsumoto, M., Tanaka, E., Tomisaki, E., Watanabe, T., Sawada, Y., & Anme, T. (2023). Measurement invariance and country difference in children’s social skills development: Evidence from Japanese and Chinese samples. Current Psychology, 42, 20385-20396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-03171-2

The diversity of child social skills development is not well detected among Asian countries. Culturally validated assessments are needed for practitioners to evaluate child social skills. This study tested the measurement invariance of the Social Skill Scale (SSS) across Japanese and Chinese samples and explored country differences in child social skills development. The SSS utilizes a widely used factor structure (assertion, self-control, and cooperation subdomains) and has established Japanese and Chinese versions. We conducted investigations with an identical process and materials with different language versions, collecting data from 931 Japanese kindergarten children (Mage = 4.35, SDage = 1.07; 53.6% boys) and from 1130 Chinese kindergarten children (Mage = 4.47, SDage = 1.00; 52.3% boys). We used multiple confirmatory factor analysis to test measurement invariance of the SSS and established the validity, reliability, and scalar measurement invariance for the first-order factor structure of the SSS across the two country samples. We also examined country differences on the associations between demographics, parenting practice, and child social skills development. We found that, compared to the Chinese sample, cooperation skills significantly increased more with age among the Japanese sample. However, spanking was negatively related to self-control skills development in both countries. Our findings contribute to the demonstration of the diversity of child social skills development and have important implications for assessing and developing child social skills using culture-specific strategies.

Identifying moderators of the link between parent and child anxiety sensitivity: The roles of gender, positive parenting, and corporal punishment.

Graham, R. A., & Weems, C. F. (2014). Identifying moderators of the link between parent and child anxiety sensitivity: The roles of gender, positive parenting, and corporal punishment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 885-893. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-014-9945-y

A substantial body of literature suggests that anxiety sensitivity is a risk factor for the development of anxiety problems and research has now begun to examine the links between parenting, parent anxiety sensitivity and their child's anxiety sensitivity. However, the extant literature has provided mixed findings as to whether parent anxiety sensitivity is associated with child anxiety sensitivity, with some evidence suggesting that other factors may influence the association. Theoretically, specific parenting behaviors may be important to the development of child anxiety sensitivity and also in understanding the association between parent and child anxiety sensitivity. In this study, 191 families (n = 255 children and adolescents aged 6-17 and their parents) completed measures of child anxiety sensitivity (CASI) and parenting (APQ-C), and parents completed measures of their own anxiety sensitivity (ASI) and their parenting (APQ-P). Corporal punishment was associated with child anxiety sensitivity and the child's report of their parent's positive parenting behaviors moderated the association between parent and child anxiety sensitivity. The child's gender was also found to moderate the association between parent and child anxiety sensitivity, such that there was a positive association between girls' and their parents anxiety sensitivity and a negative association in boys. The findings advance the understanding of child anxiety sensitivity by establishing a link with corporal punishment and by showing that the association between parent and child anxiety sensitivity may depend upon the parenting context and child's gender.

Individual differences in the development of early peer aggression: Integrating contributions of self-regulation, theory of mind, and parenting.

Olson, S. L., Lopez-Duran, N., Lunkenheimer, E. S., Chang, H., & Sameroff, A. J. (2011). Individual differences in the development of early peer aggression: Integrating contributions of self-regulation, theory of mind, and parenting. Development and Psychopathology, 23(1), 253–266. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579410000775

This prospective longitudinal study focused on self-regulatory, social-cognitive, and parenting precursors of individual differences in children's peer-directed aggression at early school age. Participants were 199 3-year-old boys and girls who were reassessed following the transition to kindergarten (5.5-6 years). Peer aggression was assessed in preschool and school settings using naturalistic observations and teacher reports. Children's self-regulation abilities and theory of mind understanding were assessed during a laboratory visit, and parenting risk (corporal punishment and low warmth/responsiveness) was assessed using interview-based and questionnaire measures. Individual differences in children's peer aggression were moderately stable across the preschool to school transition. Preschool-age children who manifested high levels of aggressive peer interactions also showed lower levels of self-regulation and theory of mind understanding, and experienced higher levels of adverse parenting than others. Our main finding was that early corporal punishment was associated with increased levels of peer aggression across the transition from preschool to school, as was the interaction between low maternal emotional support and children's early delays in theory of mind understanding. These data highlight the need for family-directed preventive efforts during the early preschool years.

Perspective reports of corporal punishment by pupils in Lesotho schools.

Monyooe, L. A. (1993). Perspective reports of corporal punishment by pupils in Lesotho schools. Psychological Reports, 73(2), 515-518. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1993.73.2.515

This study surveyed reports of practices of corporal punishment at secondary schools in Lesotho by 60 randomly selected pupils. There were 34 males and 26 females, whose mean age was 21 years, with a range between 14 and 29 years. Responses to a questionnaire confirmed that punishment was associated with pupils' reports of academic impairment, psychological damage, and physical injury.

A longitudinal study of the role of children's altruism and forgiveness in the relation between parental aggressive discipline and anxiety of preschoolers in China.

Kwok, S. Y.C.L., Gu, M., & Cheung, A. P.S. (2017). A longitudinal study of the role of children’s altruism and forgiveness in the relation between parental aggressive discipline and anxiety of preschoolers in China. Child Abuse & Neglect, 65, 236-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.02.004

Using data collected over a 1-year period on a stratified random sample of 368 parents with children studying in nurseries (mean age=3.97years), this study assessed the predictive effects of parental corporal punishment, parental psychological aggression, preschoolers' altruism, and preschoolers' forgiveness on preschoolers' anxiety symptoms in Hong Kong, China. Results of hierarchical regression analyses showed that parental psychological aggression, preschoolers' altruism and preschoolers' forgiveness at Time 1 significantly predicted preschoolers' anxiety at Time 2, when controlling for the initial level of preschoolers' anxiety and important demographic variables that co-vary with preschoolers' anxiety. Moreover, preschoolers' altruism moderated the predictive effect of parental psychological aggression on preschoolers' anxiety symptoms. The study has several significant contributions. First, the study supports the predictive effect of parental aggressive discipline on preschoolers' anxiety. Second, we provide evidence that preschoolers' altruism and forgiveness negatively predict preschoolers' anxiety symptoms. Third, preschoolers' altruism and forgiveness are shown to protect them against parental psychological aggression. A dual-focus approach to intervention and prevention is proposed to reduce aggressive discipline by parents as well as to enhance altruism and forgiveness in children. Parent training programs could be provided to teach parents positive discipline strategies. Home-based or school-based interventions could be designed for preschool children to foster and enhance their altruism and forgiveness.

The relationship between physical maltreatment and substance use among adolescents: A survey of 95,788 adolescents in Hong Kong.

Lau, J. T.F., Kim, J. H., Tsui, H-Y., Cheung, A., Lau, M., & Yu, A. (2005). The relationship between physical maltreatment and substance use among adolescents: A survey of 95,788 adolescents in Hong Kong. Journal of Adolescent Health, 37(2), 110-119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.08.005

Purpose: To determine the prevalence of corporal punishment and the infliction of injuries from a beating occurring without provocation in the previous 6 months among secondary school children in Hong Kong, and to examine the associations between these two forms of physical maltreatment with substance-use-related behaviors and attitudes.

Methods: Using secondary data, a cross-sectional, self-administered, anonymous survey of 95,788 secondary school students was conducted in Hong Kong.

Results: The prevalence of physical maltreatment showed statistically significant associations with younger age, attendance in Chinese-speaking day schools, temporary housing, residence with only one parent, poorer parental relationship, greater peer influence, perceptions of excessive academic pressure, and feelings of being blamed for poor academic performance. Adolescents who had experienced corporal punishment were more likely to be current users of alcohol (OR = 1.11), tobacco (OR = 1.31), psychoactive substances (OR = 1.60), or heroin (OR = 1.90). Those who had been beaten to injury by a family member without provocation within the past 6 months also were more likely to be current users of alcohol (OR = 1.35), tobacco (OR = 1.65), psychoactive substances (OR = 2.39), and heroin (OR = 3.07). Additionally, students who experienced physical maltreatment were more likely to be acquainted with habitual substance users, have better access to psychoactive substances, to have engaged in sex after abusing drugs, have obtained money from illegal sources to purchase drugs, and believe that psychoactive substances are not harmful or addictive.

Conclusion: Physical maltreatment showed strong associations with drug-related behaviors and attitudes, after adjusting for potential confounders. Further longitudinal studies are required to understand the causal direction of the relationship.

Parenting practices and child disruptive behavior problems in early elementary school.

Stormshak, E. A., Bierman, K. L., McMahon, R. J., & Lengua, L. J. (2010). Parenting practices and child disruptive behavior problems in early elementary school. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(1), 17-29. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15374424jccp2901_3

Examined the hypothesis that distinct parenting practices may be associated with type and profile of a child's disruptive behavior problems (e.g., oppositional, aggressive, hyperactive). Parents of 631 behaviorally disruptive children described the extent to which they experienced warm and involved interactions with their children and the extent to which their discipline strategies were inconsistent and punitive and involved spanking and physical aggression. As expected from a developmental perspective, parenting practices that included punitive interactions were associated with elevated rates of all child disruptive behavior problems. Low levels of warm involvement were particularly characteristic of parents of children who showed elevated levels of oppositional behaviors. Physically aggressive parenting was linked more specifically with child aggression. In general, parenting practices contributed more to the prediction of oppositional and aggressive behavior problems than to hyperactive behavior problems, and parenting influences were fairly consistent across ethnic groups and sex.

Child maltreatment and quality of life among urban Chinese children.

Sun, X. (2020). Child maltreatment and quality of life among urban Chinese children. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36(23-24), NP13077-NP13093. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519900331

Child maltreatment is an international public health problem. The aftermath can appear in multiple aspects of individual health and development, including decreased physical and emotional function, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and suicide attempts. However, there is lack of evidence regarding the quality of life of maltreated children. This study aims to examine the association between children's maltreatment experience and their quality of life. This study employed a cross-sectional design and surveyed 1,093 primary school children (including migrant children and nonmigrant children) in Shanghai, China. The Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale (CTSPC) and Pediatrics Quality of Life Inventory were used to measure children's experiences of child maltreatment and their quality of life. Corporal punishment (89.47%) was the most prevalent form of child maltreatment, followed by physical assault (80.21%), psychological abuse (65.00%), and neglect (52.26%). Children's migration status was not associated with their quality of life; however, social capital factors were all associated with increased levels of quality of life. Children's victimization experience, including severe to very severe physical assault (β = -3.34/-3.80, p < .001), psychological assault (β=-3.74, p < .001), corporal punishment (β=-2.46, p < .01), and neglect (β=-4.31, p < .001), was associated with their decreased quality of life. The results show that child maltreatment threatens the quality of life of children. There is a need for developing effective interventions to prevent child maltreatment and reduce the adverse outcomes among children with maltreatment experiences.

School engagement, school climate and youth externalizing behaviors: Direct and indirect effects of parenting practices.

da Fonseca, I.B., Santos, G. & Santos, M.A. (2024). School engagement, school climate and youth externalizing behaviors: Direct and indirect effects of parenting practices. Current Psychology, 43, 3029-3046. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04567-4

This research aimed to explore the direct and indirect effects of students' school engagement, school climate and parenting practices on youth's externalizing behaviors. A quantitative methodology with a sample of 183 Portuguese students, aged between 11 and 16 years old, was used. The main results suggested negative associations between externalizing behaviors and higher levels of school engagement and positive school climate. Poor parental supervision, inconsistent discipline and corporal punishment were positively related with externalizing behaviors, contrary to parental involvement and positive parenting that were associated with lower levels of externalizing behaviors. However, negative parenting practices were associated with lower levels of school engagement. Additionally, the results indicated that parenting practices might influence youth's externalizing behaviors through school engagement.

Prevalence and predictors of behavioral problems in healthy Swiss preschool children over a one year period.

Stülb, K., Messerli-Bürgy, N., Kakebeeke, T.H., Arhab, A., Zysset, A. E., Leeger-Aschmann, C. S., Schmutz, E. A., Meyer, A. H., Kriemler, S., Jenni, O. G., Puder, J. J., & Munsch, S. (2019). Prevalence and predictors of behavioral problems in healthy Swiss preschool children over a one year period. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 50, 439-448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-018-0849-x

Behavioral problems impair children's health but prevalence rates are scarce and persistence rates vary due to divergence in age ranges, assessment methods and varying environmental factors. The aim of this study was to assess prevalence rates of behavioral problems, their persistence over a 1-year period, and the impact of child- and parent-related factors on behavioral problems. 555 2-6-year-old healthy preschool children were assessed at baseline and 382 of the initial sample at 1-year follow-up. Assessment included questionnaires concerning behavioral problems and their potential predictors (e.g. socio-economic status or parenting style). Altogether, nearly 7% of these children showed clinically relevant behavioral problems, and 3% showed persistent symptoms. Low SES, inconsistent parenting and corporal punishment were positively associated with behavioral problems. The prevalence rates of behavioral problems in Swiss preschoolers are similar to other European countries, but persistence is still rather low within preschool age. These findings need further confirmation in longitudinal studies.

Parental expectations, physical punishment, and violence among adolescents who score positive on a psychosocial screening test in primary care.

Ohene, S-A., Ireland, M., McNeely, C., & Borowsky, I. W. (2006). Parental expectations, physical punishment, and violence among adolescents who score positive on a psychosocial screening test in primary care. Pediatrics, 117(2), 441-447. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-0421

Objective: We sought to examine the relationship between perceived and stated parental expectations regarding adolescents' use of violence, parental use of physical punishment as discipline, and young adolescents' violence-related attitudes and involvement.

Methods: Surveys were completed by 134 youth and their parents attending 8 pediatric practices. All youth were 10 to 15 years of age and had scored positive on a psychosocial screening test.

Results: Multivariate analyses revealed that perceived parental disapproval of the use of violence was associated with a more prosocial attitude toward interpersonal peer violence and a decreased likelihood of physical fighting by the youth. Parental report of whether they would advise their child to use violence in a conflict situation (stated parental expectations) was not associated with the adolescents' attitudes toward interpersonal peer violence, intentions to fight, physical fighting, bullying, or violence victimization. Parental use of corporal punishment as a disciplining method was inversely associated with a prosocial attitude toward interpersonal peer violence among the youth and positively correlated with youths' intentions to fight and fighting, bullying, and violence victimization.

Conclusion: Perceived parental disapproval of the use of violence may be an important protective factor against youth involvement in violence, and parental use of physical punishment is associated with both violence perpetration and victimization among youth. Parents should be encouraged to clearly communicate to their children how to resolve conflicts without resorting to violence and to model these skills themselves by avoiding the use of physical punishment.

Punishment for bedwetting is associated with child depression and reduced quality of life.

Al-Zaben, F. N., & Sehlo, M. G. (2015). Punishment for bed wetting is associated with child depression and reduced quality of life. Child Abuse & Neglect, 43, 22-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.11.007

This study assessed the relationship between parental punishment and depression as well as quality of life in children with primary monosymptomatic nocturnal enuresis (PMNE). A consecutive sample of 65 children (7-13 years) with PMNE and 40 healthy children, selected as controls (Group III), were included in the study. The children with PMNE were further sub-classified into two groups: Group I, which included children who received parental punishment for enuresis and Group II, which comprised children who were not punished for bedwetting. Depression and health-related quality of life (HRQL) were assessed among the three groups. The number of wet nights per week was significantly increased in Group I compared with Group II (P<.001). In addition, the severity of depressive symptoms increased in Group I as compared to the other two groups (P<.001). Similarly, the psychosocial HRQL lower in Group compared to the control group (Group III) (P<.001). Prior parental discipline, including corporal punishment (B=0.55, P=.008), as well as the frequency (B=0.73, P<.001) and duration of punishment (B=0.33, P=.02) were strong predictors of increased depressive symptom severity. It was also found that prior punishment (B=-0.42, P=.01) and the frequency (B=-0.62, P<.001) and duration of punishment (B=-0.34, P=.02) were strong predictors for poor psychosocial HRQL. Overall, parental punishment has a poor outcome in children with PMNE.

The relationship of parenting style and eating behavior in preschool children.

Leuba, A. L., Meyer, A. H., Kakebeeke, T. H., Stülb, K., Arhab, A., Zysset, A. E., Leeger-Aschmann, C. S., Schmutz, E. A., Kriemler, S., Jenni, O. G., Puder, J. J., Munsch, S., & Messerli-Bürgy, N. (2022). The relationship of parenting style and eating behavior in preschool children. BMC psychology, 10(1), 275. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00981-8

Background: Eating behavior represents individual appetitive traits which are related to the individual's regulation of food intake. Eating behavior develops at an early age. There is some evidence that parenting styles might impact on the child's eating behavior. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship of different dimensions of positive and negative parenting styles with the child's eating behavior at a critical age period of the child's early development.

Methods: Parents of 511 preschool children (aged 2-6 years) completed the Children Eating Behavior Questionnaire and the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire.

Results: Analyses revealed that different dimensions of negative parenting styles were associated with eating behavior of the child. In details, inconsistent parenting showed a consistent association with eating behavior of a child (i.e. higher emotional eating, higher food responsiveness, higher food fussiness, higher satiety responsiveness and more enjoyment of food), whereas corporal punishment was associated with more emotional overeating and more food responsiveness but less satiety responsiveness. Further, powerful implementation was related to higher food responsiveness and less enjoyment of food and low monitoring was associated with higher emotional overeating and more slowness in eating. There was no such consistent association of positive parenting and eating behavior.

Conclusion: More negative parenting styles were associated with eating behavior which is more often related to potential weight problems in a long term, whereas positive parenting did not show such a consistent relationship with eating behavior. Negative parenting should be in the focus of prevention and treatment of eating behavior problems in young children.

Demographic and clinical characteristics of children seeking psychiatric services in the Nile Delta region: An observational retrospective study.

Seleem, M. A., Amer, R. A., Romeh, A. H., & Homoda, H. M. (2019). Demographic and clinical characteristics of children seeking psychiatric services in the Nile Delta region: an observational retrospective study. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 13, 66. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13033-019-0323-6

Background: Epidemiological studies, describing both community and clinical samples of youth in need for psychiatric help, are rare in the middle east. To our knowledge, this is the first study that aims to investigate the demographic and clinical characteristics of a sample of children suffering from emotional and behavioral problems seeking psychiatric services in the Nile Delta region and the largest clinical sample to date in Egypt.

Methods: The files of all new cases who presented for care in the outpatient service for children and adolescents between August 2016 and July 2018 were reviewed. Ninety-six files were excluded due to missing data while another 18 files were found to be for adults (ages > 18 years old), so the sample included 886 cases.

Results: The ages of our sample (n = 886) ranged from 18 months to 18 years with an average of 7.5 (± 3.8) years. Most of our cases were male, school aged children, living within low-income households and predominantly coming from rural areas. The most common diagnoses were attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (22.6%), intellectual disability (ID) (13.7%), depressive disorders (13.3%), and disruptive behavior disorders (DBD) (12.3%). Strong protective effects were found for family integrity and stability. Corporal punishment and physical and sexual abuse were noted to be significant risk factors for internalizing and externalizing disorders in children and adolescents.

Conclusion: Except for males being a majority in our sample of children seeking psychiatric consultation, demographic patterns and prevalence of psychiatric disorders are comparable to other tertiary clinical samples in other parts of the world.

Corporal punishment and violent behavior spectrum: A meta-analytic review.

Pam, Q., Chen, S., & Qu, Y. (2024). Corporal punishment and violence behavior spectrum: A meta-analytic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1323784. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1323784

Corporal punishment is believed to precede various forms of violent behavior, yet prior research has yielded inconsistent findings, partly due to variations in violent types and other factors. This meta-analysis systematically reviewed 35 studies including 144 effect sizes (comprising a total sample size of 159,213) investigating the association between corporal punishment and a spectrum of violent behaviors called Violent Behavior Spectrum (VBS). Additionally, meta-regressions were conducted to explore the moderating impact of punishment severity, violence type and cultural context. Our findings indicated a significant positive relationship between corporal punishment and VBS (r = 0.238, 95%, CI [0.176, 0.300]). Notably, punishment severity was found to influence the strength of this association. Namely, The more severe the corporal punishment, the more likely it is to lead to VBS. These results enhance our understanding of the intricate connection between corporal punishment and various forms of violence, providing valuable insights for both parenting practices and policy development.

What is the link between corporal punishment and child physical abuse?

Fréchette, S., Zoratti, M. & Romano, E. (2015). What is the link between corporal punishment and child physical abuse?. Journal of Family Violence, 30, 135-148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-014-9663-9

This study aimed to contribute to the literature on corporal punishment by examining the link between spanking and child physical abuse. First, we examined the extent to which individuals who experienced spanking in childhood were at greater risk of also experiencing physical abuse by their parents. Second, we examined various parenting and family factors that could distinguish between spanking that occurred within and without a physically abusive context. A sample of 370 university students completed a questionnaire on disciplinary experiences at age 10. Results suggested that individuals who indicated having experienced spanking during childhood were at greater risk of also having experienced physical abuse. Among individuals who indicated having experienced spanking, greater spanking frequency, perceptions of impulsiveness in parental discipline, and reports of physical violence between parents significantly increased the risk of physical abuse. This research contributes to the growing evidence on the risks associated with child corporal punishment.

Unpacking the association between corporal punishment and criminal involvement.

Joyner, B., & Beaver, K. M. (2022). Unpacking the association between corporal punishment and criminal involvement. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 49(12), 1845-1863. https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548221107874

A great deal of research has revealed a link between corporal punishment and negative life outcomes, but the underlying mechanisms that explain how and why these associations exist are not well understood. The current study extends this line of research by analyzing a longitudinal sample of high-risk male and female youth drawn from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being. The analyses revealed that the use of corporal punishment was differentially used depending on certain parental behavioral characteristics. Even after accounting for such attributes, our models generally demonstrated that corporal punishment was associated with later criminal involvement. The models also revealed that the corporal punishment-criminal involvement link was dependent upon the relationship of the parent to the child being spanked. Our analyses additionally address the importance of proper model specification when examining the association between corporal punishment and later life outcomes. We conclude by discussing implications for future research.

The relationship between grandparents' violent discipline and school bullying behavior among left-behind children.

Dong, S., Dong, Q., & Chen, M. (2024). The relationship between grandparents’ violent discipline and school bullying behavior among left-behind children. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605241246001

Most left-behind children in rural China are raised by their grandparents, whose parenting style significantly impacts children's development. This study examined the association between grandparents' violent discipline and left-behind children's school bullying. This cross-sectional study recruited a sample of 462 left-behind children aged 10 to 15 years old (Age Mean = 12.372, 49.351% girls) from four rural primary and junior high schools in Chongqing, China. There was a significant positive association between corporal punishment (β = .236, p < .001) and psychological aggression (β=.272, p < .001) of grandparents and children's school bullying. Empathy and moral disengagement mediate the above association. Cross-gender comparisons indicated that corporal punishment had a greater positive relationship with school bullying in boys than girls (βgirls=.154, p < .01; βboys=.250, p < .001). At the same time, boys' moral disengagement was also more likely to lead to school bullying (βgirls=.233, p < .001; βboys=.337, p < .001). We discuss the implications of these findings for preventing bullying in schools for children left behind.

Parental spanking of 1-year-old children and subsequent child protective services involvement.

Lee, S. J., Grogan-Kaylor, A. & Berger, L. M. (2014). Parental spanking of 1-year-old children and subsequent child protective services involvement. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(5), 875-883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.01.018

The majority of U.S. parents spank their children, often beginning when their children are very young. We examined families (N=2,788) who participated in a longitudinal community-based study of new births in urban areas. Prospective analyses examined whether spanking by the child's mother, father, or mother's current partner when the child was 1-year-old was associated with household CPS involvement between age 1 and age 5. Results indicated that 30% of 1-year-olds were spanked at least once in the past month. Spanking at age 1 was associated with increased odds of subsequent CPS involvement (adjusted odds ratio=1.36, 95% CI [1.08, 1.71], p <.01). When compared to non-spanked children, there was a 33% greater probability of subsequent CPS involvement for children who were spanked at age 1. Given the undesirable consequences of spanking children and a lack of empirical evidence to suggest positive effects of physical punishment, professionals who work with families should counsel parents not to spank infants and toddlers. For optimal benefits, efforts to educate parents regarding alternative forms of discipline should begin during the child's first year of life.

Experience of parental corporal punishment in childhood and adolescence and its effect on punitiveness.

Kemme, S., Hanslmaier, M., & Pfeiffer, C. (2014). Experience of parental corporal punishment in childhood and adolescence and its effect on punitiveness. Journal of Family Violence, 29, 129-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-013-9564-3

The family, as the primary instance of socialization, plays a key role in nurturing values and attitudes. Based on this notion, this paper looks at how parental corporal punishment in childhood and adolescence, as an expression of a strict, authoritarian upbringing, can influence punitiveness later in life. The results of a representative German sample using multivariate analyses show that individuals who were physically punished or abused by their parents during childhood or adolescence are more punitive than non-victims of parental violence. Based on these findings, the question of whether changing parenting styles might have implications at the macro-level of punitiveness is addressed.

Predictors of corporal punishment during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Sege, R. D., Purdue, E. L., Burstein, D., Holditch Niolon, P., Price, L. L., Chen, Y., Swedo, E. A., Piazza Hurley, T., Prasad, K., & Klika, B. (2024). Predictors of corporal punishment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Pediatric Reports, 16(2), 300–312. https://doi.org/10.3390/pediatric16020026

Although current policies discourage the use of corporal punishment (CP), its use is still widespread in the US. The objective of this study was to assess the proportion of parents who used CP during the pandemic and identify related risk and protective factors. We analyzed results of a nationwide cross-sectional internet panel survey of 9000 US caregivers who responded in three waves from November 2020 to July 2021. One in six respondents reported having spanked their child in the past week. Spanking was associated with intimate partner violence and the use of multiple discipline strategies and not significantly associated with region or racial self-identification. Parents who spanked sought out more kinds of support, suggesting an opportunity to reduce spanking through more effective parenting resources. Additionally, these results suggest that parents who report using CP may be at risk for concurrent domestic violence.